T. David Evans

Strain, anger, and delinquent adaptations Specifying general strain theory

Agnews general strain theory has been one of the more significant developments in theoretical criminology over the past decade. To extend the emerging empirical literature assessing this perspective, the current study presented original data collected from a sample of high school-aged youths in the 1990s, included a measure of anger that a number of previous tests overlooked, and examined a number of different delinquent adaptations to strain. The analysis focused directly on the relationships between exposure to strain, anger, and delinquent behavior. An examination was conducted into whether strain has direct or indirect effects, through the mediating effects of anger, on three types of delinquent outcomes: violence, drug use, and school-related deviance. The findings reveal that strain has direct (i.e., independent) effects on violence even after controlling for other influences, but exposure to strain is not related to illicit drug use or school-related deviance independently. The results reveal that the criminogenic effects of strain on drug use are conditional on weak social bonds and exposure to deviant affiliations. In addition, the results reveal that anger does not mediate the effects of strain on delinquent outcomes. The results for models predicting violence reveal that the criminogenic effects of anger operate through strain. The results are consistent with the view that youth with high levels of anger disproportionately experience and/or perceive strainful circumstances or events that can lead to violence. Explanations on why strain and anger appear to have differential effects on varied delinquent outcomes were offered.

Reconsidering strain theory: Operationalization, rival theories, and adult criminality

Recently a revisionist view of strain theorys empirical adequacy has emerged which holds that the theorys explanatory power depends on how it is operationalized. With an adult community sample, we empirically assess three separate measures of strain to explain self-reported crime: the gap between aspirations and expectations, blocked opportunities, and relative deprivation. The findings reveal that the aspirations-expectations measure is not related to criminal involvement, while perceived blocked opportunities and feelings of relative deprivation significantly affect adult offending. These relationships, however, fail to persist after measures from competing theories (i.e., low self-control, differential association, and social bond) are introduced as controls in the regression equations. Thus, measures from rival theories offer a more fruitful approach to explaining self-reported adult offending.

A new test of classic strain theory

The central variable in classic strain theory is the individuals level of dissatisfaction or frustration with his or her monetary status. This variable, however, has been ignored in virtually all tests of the theory. Most often, strain is measured indirectly in terms of the disjunction between aspirations and expectations. This paper directly measures dissatisfaction with monetary status, and draws on classic strain theory to explore the determinants and effects of such dissatisfaction. Data from a sample of adults in Cincinnati indicate that dissatisfaction is highest among objectively deprived individuals and those who desire a lot of money, have low expectations for making a lot of money, and feel relatively deprived. Further, dissatisfaction has a positive effect on both income-generating crime and drug use. This effect is strongest among those who have criminal friends and beliefs conductive to crime. Unlike the findings in much previous research, these data provide qualified support for classic str...

Age, self-control, and adults' offending behaviors: A research note assessing A general theory of crime

This article examined empirically whether Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) “general theory” explained criminal and imprudent behaviors among a community sample of adults across the age distribution. The findings indicated that low self-control was significantly related with both forms of self-reported offending activity through age fifty. Gottfredson and Hirschi’s claim that their theory explained offending across age, therefore, was generally supported. It is suggested that future empirical tests employ the “general theory” as a causal explanation of adult criminality.

Salvation or damnation?: Religion and correctional ideology

Fundamentalist affiliation and religious beliefs are generally related to more punitive attitudes toward criminals. Fundamentalists also tend to attribute criminality to individual dispositional factors, and in turn, such factors are related to punitiveness. Recently, it has also been found that compassionate dimensions of religion are related to treatment-oriented policies. It is still not clear which dimensions of religion are related to punitive or treatment ideology and what effects religious variables may have when tested against secular concerns about crime and crime attributions. In the present research, we test three models of punitiveness and one model of rehabilitation with demographic, secular, religious, and attributional factors. We found that those for whom religion is salient in their daily lives tend to believe that the death penalty should be reserved for older offenders and that those who believe in a punitive God tend to support harsher punishments.

The impact of parental controls on delinquency

Previous studies have argued that not only indirect controls but also direct controls lessen delinquency. Through a self-report survey of high school youths, the current study attempts to assess this thesis. Supportive of previous studies, the data revealed that even with a range of theoretically salient variables controlled, direct control was inversely related to delinquent involvement. This relationship, however, was stronger and more consistent for males than females.

Racial differences in informal labeling effects

Labeling theorists have long argued that the application of negative labels can promote rather than deter delinquent behavior. Yet, it has also been suggested that the effects of negative labeling ...

Theoretical development of comparative criminology: Rekindling an interest

Comparative criminology is making an impressive imprint in academic circles. This is evident by the burgeoning number of studies, journal articles, books, college courses, symposia, and conferences devoted to comparative issues. Our reading of existing literature, however, indicates the comparative field is overly descriptive and oriented to the pragmatic rather than theoretical. Comparative criminology is not theoretically sophisticated. This paper assesses the current state of theory in the comparative field and offers some preliminary suggestions for correcting the theoretical void. Colemans (1991) theory of white‐collar crime and Gottfredson and Hirschis (1990) general theory of crime are presented as examples of theoretical frameworks with potential comparative applications. Implications for future development of comparative criminological theory are discussed.

Attributes of highly effective criminal defense negotiators

A major role of the criminal defense attorney is that of professional plea bargainer. What attributes do those defenders who excel at plea bargaining tend to possess? Chief district attorneys throughout a wide region of the country were asked to think of a local defense attorney who was exceptionally effective at negotiating plea bargains in nonroutine cases. With this defender in mind, they filled out a questionnaire about his/her negotiating style, legal skills, and personality traits as contrasted with those of most other attorneys in their jurisdiction. The data revealed that most of these stellar defense negotiators used a cooperative negotiation style. Though most were extroverts, a sizeable minority were introverts. Virtually, all of them were in strong control of their emotions and this trait (emotional stability) proved to be the most important characteristic of all.