T. Hanada

Origin of forward leakage current in GaN-based light-emitting devices

The authors fabricated GaN-based light-emitting diodes (LEDs) on two different GaN templates with the same LED structure. One on thin GaN template (∼2μm) with high dislocation density [low (109cm−2)] grown by metal-organic vapor-phase epitaxy (sample A) and the other on thick GaN template (∼20μm) with comparatively low dislocation density [high (108cm−2)] by hydride vapor-phase epitaxy (sample B). In order to understand the mechanism of leakage current in LEDs, the correlation between current-voltage characteristics and etch pit density of LEDs was studied.

Band alignment at a ZnO/GaN (0001) heterointerface

We report the experimental results of the valence band offset at a ZnO/GaN (0001) heterointerface. The ZnO/GaN (0001) heterointerface is prepared by growing a ZnO layer on (0001) GaN/Al2O3, in which the ZnO layer is epitaxially deposited by plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy, while the GaN template is prepared by metalorganic chemical-vapor deposition. Ex situ ultraviolet and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy have been used to measure the valence band offset ΔEV. The photoelectron spectroscopy measurements are done before and after Ar+ ion cleaning of the surfaces. Type-II band alignments with band offsets of ΔEV=1.0 eV (before cleaning) and 0.8 eV (after cleaning) with the valence band maximum of GaN being placed above that of ZnO are obtained.

Structural variation of cubic and hexagonal MgxZn1−xO layers grown on MgO(111)∕c-sapphire

We report on the structure study of MgxZn1−xO films and, in particular, we will focus on MgxZn1−xO layers with x=0.28 and 0.41 MgxZn1−xO layers with different crystal structures of cubic and wurtzite that have been grown by plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy on MgO∕c-sapphire with Mg∕Zn flux ratio control. The MgxZn1−xO films have been characterized by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and high-resolution x-ray diffraction. The dependence of the cation-anion bond length to Mg content has been studied. A virtual crystal model of MgZnO has been applied to interpret the bond-length variation. HRTEM results indicate that the initial stage of the MgZnO growth on a MgO buffer layer starts with a cubic structure even in the case of a wurtzite structure at the end of growth.

Control of Polarity of ZnO Films Grown by Plasma-Assisted Molecular-Beam Epitaxy: Zn- and O-Polar ZnO Films on Ga-Polar GaN Templates

We report on the growth of polarity-controlled ZnO films by plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy. Different polar (Zn- and O-polar) ZnO films on unipolar (Ga-polar) GaN epilayers are selectively grown. Polarity of ZnO films is evaluated by coaxial impact collision ion scattering spectroscopy. Zn preexposure prior to ZnO growth results in Zn-polar ZnO films (Zn face), while O-plasma preexposure leads to the growth of O-polar ZnO films (O face). High-resolution transmission electron microscopy reveals the formation of an interface layer between ZnO and GaN epilayers in O-plasma preexposed samples, while no interface layer is observed in Zn preexposed samples. The interface layer is identified as single crystalline, monoclinic Ga2O3. We propose models for interface configurations at ZnO/GaN heterointerfaces, which can successfully explain the different polarities of the ZnO films.

Electron-trap centers in ZnO layers grown by molecular-beam epitaxy

We have investigated electron-trap centers in ZnO layers grown under different Zn∕O flux ratios by molecular-beam epitaxy. Frequency-dependent capacitance measurements show that ZnO layers grown under Zn-rich and stoichiometric flux conditions suffer from larger dispersion than a ZnO layer grown under an O-rich flux condition. Temperature-dependent capacitance measurements reveal that all the ZnO layers have shallow electron-trap centers ET1 and deep electron-trap centers ET2, while the Zn-rich ZnO layer has another shallow electron-trap center ET3 besides ET1 and ET2: the thermal activation energies of ET1, ET2, and ET3 are estimated to be 0.033–0.046, 0.12–0.15, and 0.065 eV, respectively. Moreover, it is exhibited that the trap density of ET2 is larger than those of ET1 or ET3 in all the cases and increases as the Zn∕O flux ratio increases. Consequently, it is suggested that the large dispersion effect observed in the Zn-rich and stoichiometric ZnO layers is ascribed to the large density of deep electron-trap center ET2.We have investigated electron-trap centers in ZnO layers grown under different Zn∕O flux ratios by molecular-beam epitaxy. Frequency-dependent capacitance measurements show that ZnO layers grown under Zn-rich and stoichiometric flux conditions suffer from larger dispersion than a ZnO layer grown under an O-rich flux condition. Temperature-dependent capacitance measurements reveal that all the ZnO layers have shallow electron-trap centers ET1 and deep electron-trap centers ET2, while the Zn-rich ZnO layer has another shallow electron-trap center ET3 besides ET1 and ET2: the thermal activation energies of ET1, ET2, and ET3 are estimated to be 0.033–0.046, 0.12–0.15, and 0.065 eV, respectively. Moreover, it is exhibited that the trap density of ET2 is larger than those of ET1 or ET3 in all the cases and increases as the Zn∕O flux ratio increases. Consequently, it is suggested that the large dispersion effect observed in the Zn-rich and stoichiometric ZnO layers is ascribed to the large density of deep electr...

Low stacking-fault density in ZnSe epilayers directly grown on epi-ready GaAs substrates without GaAs buffer layers

We report a remarkably low stacking-fault density in ZnSe epilayers directly grown on commercial epi-ready GaAs (001) substrates without GaAs buffer layer growth. It is found that proper pregrowth treatments on epi-ready GaAs (001) substrates to obtain clean surfaces are crucial for two-dimensional layer-by-layer growth and suppression of stacking fault generation. Chemical etching using a NH4OH-based solution is found to reduce not only the thickness of the oxide layers but also the ratio of Ga2O3 to As2O3 to about half of that before etching. A clean GaAs (001) surface characterized by a (4×1) reconstruction in the present case is obtained after thermal cleaning followed by Zn pre-exposure. Reflection high-energy electron diffraction intensity oscillations with more than 50 periods are observed even from the very beginning of ZnSe growth on GaAs substrates cleaned as such. The stacking fault density in such a ZnSe layer is in the low-105 cm−2 range.

Lattice strain in bulk GaN epilayers grown on CrN/sapphire template

Microphotoluminescence spectroscopy is used to investigate local strain in GaN films grown on c-sapphire with CrN buffer, where the CrN buffer is partly etched. Biaxial compressive strain dominates GaN films grown on CrN buffer/c-plane sapphire. The emission energies of D0X, FXA, and FXA-1LO emission lines shift gradually from a high value to a low one, as the excitation laser beam scans from the unetched side of the sample to the etched side, while the emission intensities show only a slight change. No cracking occurs in the GaN film during etching except a change in bending of the detached part of the GaN film from convex to concave as determined by surface profiler. Both the lattice parameter and the energy position of the bound exciton emission peaks from a completely detached GaN are almost the same as those reported for strain-free GaN. The line width of the (0002) ω scan of a GaN film is narrowed from 352 to 331 arc sec through detaching presumably due to decrease in bending. Those properties sugge...

Lattice relaxation mechanism of ZnO thin films grown on c-Al2O3 substrates by plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy

We report on the lattice relaxation mechanism of ZnO films grown on c-Al2O3 substrates by plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy. The lattice relaxation of ZnO films with various thicknesses up to 2000nm is investigated by using both in situ time-resolved reflection high energy electron diffraction observation during the initial growth and absolute lattice constant measurements (Bond method) for grown films. The residual strain in the films is explained in terms of lattice misfit relaxation (compression) at the growth temperature and thermal stress (tension) due to the difference of growth and measurement temperatures. In thick films (>1μm), the residual tensile strain begins to relax by bending and microcrack formation.

Polarity control of ZnO films on (0001) Al2O3 by Cr-compound intermediate layers

This letter presents a reliable and very easy method for selective growth of polarity controlled ZnO films on (0001) Al2O3 substrates by plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy. Cr-compound intermediate layers are used to control the crystal polarity of ZnO films on (0001) Al2O3. ZnO films grown on rocksalt structure CrN/(0001) Al2O3 shows Zn polarity, while those grown on rhombohedral Cr2O3∕(0001) Al2O3 shows O polarity. Possible interface atomic arrangements for both heterostructures are proposed.

Characteristics of Schottky contacts to ZnO:N layers grown by molecular-beam epitaxy

We have investigated the characteristics of Au Schottky contacts to ZnO:N layers grown on (0001) GaN/Al2O3 substrates by plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy. It is found that the Schottky characteristics are dependent on the growth temperature and polar direction of ZnO:N layers. The Schottky barrier height for the Au contact to a ZnO:N layer (300 °C, Zn-polar) is estimated to be 0.66 and 0.69 eV by current–voltage measurements and capacitance–voltage measurements, respectively. It is found that the Schottky barrier height is proportional to the resistivity and incorporated N concentration of ZnO:N layers. Consequently, we believe that the low growth temperature and Zn-polar direction are favored for N incorporation in the growth of ZnO:N layers, which contributes to the increased resistivity in ZnO:N layers and results in good Schottky characteristics.