Takehiro Yamakoshi

Comparison between red, green and blue light reflection photoplethysmography for heart rate monitoring during motion

Reflection photoplethysmography (PPG) using 530 nm (green) wavelength light has the potential to be a superior method for monitoring heart rate (HR) during normal daily life due to its relative freedom from artifacts. However, little is known about the accuracy of pulse rate (PR) measured by 530 nm light PPG during motion. Therefore, we compared the HR measured by electrocadiography (ECG) as a reference with PR measured by 530, 645 (red), and 470 nm (blue) wavelength light PPG during baseline and while performing hand waving in 12 participants. In addition, we examined the change of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) by motion for each of the three wavelengths used for the PPG. The results showed that the limit of agreement in Bland-Altman plots between the HR measured by ECG and PR measured by 530 nm light PPG (±0.61 bpm) was smaller than that achieved when using 645 and 470 nm light PPG (±3.20 bpm and ±2.23 bpm, respectively). The ΔSNR (the difference between baseline and task values) of 530 and 470nm light PPG was significantly smaller than ΔSNR for red light PPG. In conclusion, 530 nm light PPG could be a more suitable method than 645 and 470nm light PPG for monitoring HR in normal daily life.

iPhysioMeter: A new approach for measuring heart rate and normalized pulse volume using only a smartphone

Heart rate (HR) and normalized pulse volume (NPV) are physiological indices that have been used in a diversity of psychological studies. However, measuring these indices often requires laborious processes. We therefore developed a new smartphone program, named iPhysioMeter, that makes it possible to measure beat-by-beat HR and ln NPV using only a smartphone. We examined its accuracy against conventional laboratory measures. Mental stress tasks were used to alter HR and ln NPV in 12 participants. Bland–Altman analyses revealed negligible proportional bias for HR and ln NPV or for their change values, expressed as ΔHR and Δln NPV. However, a relatively large fixed bias did emerge for ln NPV, as well as a small one for Δln NPV, although both were within the limits of agreement. These findings suggest that iPhysioMeter can yield valid measures of the absolute level of HR and of relative changes in ln NPV.

A Preliminary Study on Driver's Stress Index Using a New Method Based on Differential Skin Temperature Measurement

Prolonged periods of driving in monotonous situations may lower a drivers activation state as well as increasing their stress level due to the compulsion to maintain safe driving, which may result in an increased risk of a traffic accident. There is therefore an opportunity for technological assessment of driver physiological status to be applied in-car, hopefully reducing the incidence of potentially dangerous situations. As part of our long-term aim to develop such a system, we describe here the investigation of differential skin temperature measurement as a possible marker of a drivers stress level. 10 healthy male subjects were studied, under environment-controlled conditions, whilst being subjected to simulated monotonous travel at constant speed on a test-course. We acquired measurements of relevant physiological variables, including truncal and peripheral skin temperatures (Ts), beat-by-beat blood pressure (BP), cardiac output (CO), total peripheral resistance (TPR), and normalized pulse volume (NPV) used as an indicator of local peripheral vascular tone. We then investigated the drivers reactivity in terms of cardiovascular haemodynamics and skin temperatures. We found that the simulated monotonous driving produced a gradual drop in peripheral Ts following the driving stress, which, through interpretation of the TPR and NPV recordings, could be explained by peripheral sympathetic activation. On the other hand, the truncal Ts was not influenced by the stress. These findings lead us to suggest that truncal-peripheral differential Ts might be used as a possible index indicative of the drivers stress. Such an index, if decisively validated, would be easy to apply in real driving situations by using radiation thermometer.

iPhone 4s Photoplethysmography: Which Light Color Yields the Most Accurate Heart Rate and Normalized Pulse Volume Using the iPhysioMeter Application in the Presence of Motion Artifact?

Recent progress in information and communication technologies has made it possible to measure heart rate (HR) and normalized pulse volume (NPV), which are important physiological indices, using only a smartphone. This has been achieved with reflection mode photoplethysmography (PPG), by using a smartphone’s embedded flash as a light source and the camera as a light sensor. Despite its widespread use, the method of PPG is susceptible to motion artifacts as physical displacements influence photon propagation phenomena and, thereby, the effective optical path length. Further, it is known that the wavelength of light used for PPG influences the photon penetration depth and we therefore hypothesized that influences of motion artifact could be wavelength-dependant. To test this hypothesis, we made measurements in 12 healthy volunteers of HR and NPV derived from reflection mode plethysmograms recorded simultaneously at three different spectral regions (red, green and blue) at the same physical location with a smartphone. We then assessed the accuracy of the HR and NPV measurements under the influence of motion artifacts. The analyses revealed that the accuracy of HR was acceptably high with all three wavelengths (all rs > 0.996, fixed biases: −0.12 to 0.10 beats per minute, proportional biases: r = −0.29 to 0.03), but that of NPV was the best with green light (r = 0.791, fixed biases: −0.01 arbitrary units, proportional bias: r = 0.11). Moreover, the signal-to-noise ratio obtained with green and blue light PPG was higher than that of red light PPG. These findings suggest that green is the most suitable color for measuring HR and NPV from the reflection mode photoplethysmogram under motion artifact conditions. We conclude that the use of green light PPG could be of particular benefit in ambulatory monitoring where motion artifacts are a significant issue.

The effect of competition on heart rate during kart driving: A field study

BackgroundBoth the act of competing, which can create a kind of mental stress, and participation in motor sports, which induces physical stress from intense g-forces, are known to increase heart rate dramatically. However, little is known about the specific effect of competition on heart rate during motor sports, particularly during four-wheel car driving. The goal of this preliminary study, therefore, was to investigate whether competition increases heart rate under such situations.FindingsThe participants drove an entry-level formula kart during two competitive races and during solo driving against the clock while heart rate and g-forces were measured. Analyses showed that heart rate values during the races (168.8 beats/min) were significantly higher than those during solo driving (140.9 beats/min) and rest (75.1 beats/min).ConclusionsThe results of this preliminary study indicate that competition heightens heart rate during four-wheel car driving. Kart drivers should be concerned about maintaining good health and developing physical strength.

A New Non-invasive Method for Measuring Blood Glucose Using Instantaneous Differential Near Infrared Spectrophotometry

We describe further development of a novel method for non-invasive measurement of blood glucose concentration (BGL), named Pulse Glucometry, based on differential near infrared spectrophotometry. Sequential temporal differences of infrared transmittance spectra from the radiation intensity (Ilambda) emerging from a fingertip containing an arterial pulse component (DeltaIlambda) are analysed. To perform the measurements we developed a new high-speed spectrophotometer, covering the wavelength range from 900 to 1700 nm, scanning at a maximum spectral rate of 1800 spectra/s, with a minimum exposure time of 20 mus. Spectra related only to the pulsatile blood component are derived, thus minimising influences of basal components such as resting blood volume, skin, muscle and bone. We have now improved the performance of the spectrophotometer and in the present paper we describe new in vivo measurements carried out in 23 healthy volunteers undergoing glucose tolerance tests. Blood samples were collected from the cephalic vein simultaneously with radiation intensity measurements in the fingertip every 10 min before and after oral administration of glucose solution for 120 min. BGL values were then predicted using a PLS calibration model and compared with blood values determined by colorimetric assay. The precision and accuracy of the non-invasive determinations are encouraging.

Physiological measurements and analyses in motor sports: a preliminary study in racing kart athletes

Abstract The aims of this study were to assess methods for performing physiological measurements in motor sports, and to carry out a preliminary study in athletes participating in kart racing. The measurement of physiological variables in motor sports is practically challenging, largely due to the restricted space available for sensors and instrumentation and to movement artefacts from drivers operations and car vibration, hence the paucity of publications. We performed a preliminary study of amateur racing kart athletes to assess the performance of basic measurement apparatus and to collect preliminary data on the possible influences of gravity on cardiovascular activity. We measured the vector magnitude of acceleration (G), instantaneous heart rate using electrocardiography, blood pressure with a wrist sphygmomanometer, eardrum temperature (taken as a measure of core body temperature) with a radiation thermometer, and lap time. The instrumentation functioned satisfactorily during karting on a racing circuit. In all participants during driving, heart rate was maintained at approximately 150 beats · min−1. Time-frequency analysis of all heart rate data was performed to evaluate cardiac control mechanisms and this suggested that the observed rise in heart rate could be due to sympathetic acceleration. Furthermore, while we do not have sufficient data to draw firm conclusions, it is suggested that the rise in heart rate could be related to the G stresses to which the drivers were subjected. Cross-correlation analysis of the G and heart rate signals was performed in one participant and this showed a statistically significant correlation. We also found a statistically significant decrease in blood pressure (P<0.01) and a rise in eardrum temperature (P<0.01) immediately after the driving period. We conclude that although current sensors and instrumentation can allow basic monitoring of physiological variables in motor sport athletes, further developments are needed to allow more detailed investigations to be performed. Cardiovascular activity in response to G stresses warrants particular detailed investigation.

Feasibility study on driver's stress detection from differential skin temperature measurement

Prolonged monotonous driving may lower a drivers awareness level as well as increasing their stress level due to the compulsion to maintain safe driving, which may result in an increased risk of a traffic accident. There is therefore an opportunity for technological assessment of driver physiological status to be applied in-car, hopefully reducing the incidence of potentially dangerous situations. As part of our long-term aim to develop such a system, we describe here the investigation of differential skin temperature measurement as a possible marker of a drivers stress level. In this study, healthy male (n=18) & female (n=7) subjects were investigated under environment-controlled conditions, whilst being subjected to simulated monotonous travel at constant speed on a test-course. We acquired physiological variables, including facial skin temperature which consists of truncal and peripheral skin temperatures (Ts) using thermography, beat-by-beat blood pressure (BP), cardiac output (CO), total peripheral resistance (TPR), and normalized pulse volume (NPV) used as an indicator of local peripheral vascular tone. We then investigated the drivers reactivity in terms of skin temperatures with this background of cardiovascular haemodynamics. We found that the simulated monotonous driving produced a gradual drop in peripheral Ts following the driving stress, which, through interpretation of the TPR and NPV recordings, could be explained by peripheral sympathetic activation. On the other hand, the truncal Ts was not influenced by the stress. These findings lead us to suggest that truncal-peripheral differential Ts could be used as a possible index indicative of the drivers stress.

Accuracy Assessment of a Noninvasive Device for Monitoring Beat-by-Beat Blood Pressure in the Radial Artery Using the Volume-Compensation Method

For the noninvasive and accurate measurement of instantaneous blood pressure (BP) in the radial artery, the performance of a device based on the principle of volume-compensation was assessed by comparison with simultaneous measurement of direct (invasive) radial artery pressure in nine healthy subjects. Bias and precision of systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP) derived from Bland-Altman plots of data from the present system and the direct method averaged -0.5 plusmn 2.1 mmHg and 0.6 plusmn 1.8 mmHg respectively, over a wide range of SBP and DBP. These results clearly indicate that, using this system, instantaneous radial artery pressure can be measured noninvasively with high accuracy.

Validation of normalized pulse volume in the outer ear as a simple measure of sympathetic activity using warm and cold pressor tests: towards applications in ambulatory monitoring

Normalized pulse volume (NPV) derived from the ear has the potential to be a practical index for monitoring daily life stress. However, ear NPV has not yet been validated. Therefore, we compared NPV derived from an index finger using transmission photoplethysmography as a reference, with NPV derived from a middle finger and four sites of the ear using reflection photoplethysmography during baseline and while performing cold and warm water immersion in ten young and six middle-aged subjects. The results showed that logarithmically-transformed NPV (lnNPV) during cold water immersion as compared with baseline values was significantly lower, only at the index finger, the middle finger and the bottom of the ear-canal. Furthermore, lnNPV reactivities (ΔlnNPV; the difference between baseline and test values) from an index finger were significantly related to ΔlnNPV from the middle finger and the bottom of the ear-canal (young: r = 0.90 and 0.62, middle-aged: r = 0.80 and 0.58, respectively). In conclusion, these findings show that reflection and transmission photoplethysmography are comparable methods to derive NPV in accordance with our theoretical prediction. NPV derived from the bottom of the ear-canal is a valid approach, which could be useful for evaluating daily life stress.