Tatiana Y. Gorpenchenko

Suppression of Reactive Oxygen Species and Enhanced Stress Tolerance in Rubia cordifolia Cells Expressing the rolC Oncogene

It is known that expression of the Agrobacterium rhizogenes rolC gene in transformed plant cells causes defense-like reactions, such as increased phytoalexin production and expression of pathogenesis-related proteins. In the present study, we examined whether this phenomenon is associated with increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Single-cell assays based on confocal microscopy and fluorogenic dyes (2,7-dichlorofluorescein diacetate and dihydrorhodamine 123) showed reduced steady-state levels of ROS in rolC-expressing Rubia cordifolia cells as compared with normal cells. Paraquat, a ROS inducer, caused significant ROS elevation in normal cells but had little effect on rolC-transformed cells. Likewise, ROS elevation triggered by a light stress was suppressed in transformed cells. Our results indicate that the rolC gene acts as a ROS suppressor in unstressed cells and its expression prevents stress-induced ROS elevations. We detected a two- to threefold increase in tolerance of rolC-transformed cells to salt, heat, and cold treatments. Simultaneously, rolC-transformed cells maintained permanently active defensive status, as found by measuring isochorismate synthase gene expression and anthraquinone production. Thus, the oncogene provoked multiple effects in which ROS production and phytoalexin production were clearly dissociated.

The rolB Gene Suppresses Reactive Oxygen Species in Transformed Plant Cells through the Sustained Activation of Antioxidant Defense

The rolB (for rooting locus of Agrobacterium rhizogenes) oncogene has previously been identified as a key player in the formation of hairy roots during the plant-A. rhizogenes interaction. In this study, using single-cell assays based on confocal microscopy, we demonstrated reduced levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in rolB-expressing Rubia cordifolia, Panax ginseng, and Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) cells. The expression of rolB was sufficient to inhibit excessive elevations of ROS induced by paraquat, menadione, and light stress and prevent cell death induced by chronic oxidative stress. In rolB-expressing cells, we detected the enhanced expression of antioxidant genes encoding cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase. We conclude that, similar to pathogenic determinants in other pathogenic bacteria, rolB suppresses ROS and plays a role not only in cell differentiation but also in ROS metabolism.

Recent Advances in the Understanding of Agrobacterium rhizogenes-Derived Genes and Their Effects on Stress Resistance and Plant Metabolism

It is commonly accepted that the plant pathogens Agrobacterium rhizogenes and Agrobacterium tumefaciens, acting via their T-DNA oncogenes, disturb hormone metabolism or hormone perception pathways in plants, thereby attaining their aim of successful pathogenesis. In this work, we summarize recent data on the A. rhizogenes rolC and rolB oncogenes in comparison to the A. tumefaciens 6b oncogene with respect to their effects on the physiology of transformed cells. The newly discovered functions of the rol genes include the modulation of secondary metabolism, the modulation of levels of intracellular ROS and stress resistance of transformed cells, changed sucrose metabolism, and the inhibition of programmed cell death. We show that the rol genes do not have suppressive effects on plant innate immunity; rather, these genes activate plant defense reactions. The existence of not only the hormone-related mechanism of pathogenicity but also the defense-related mechanism of pathogenicity during plant-Agrobacterium interactions is suggested.

Decreased ROS level and activation of antioxidant gene expression in Agrobacterium rhizogenes pRiA4-transformed calli of Rubia cordifolia

Microbe–plant interactions often lead to a decrease in the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level of plant cells, which allows pathogen survival through the suppression of plant immune responses. In the present investigation, we tested whether transformation of Rubia cordifolia cells by Agrobacteriumrhizogenes had a similar effect. We isolated partial cDNA sequences of ascorbate peroxidase, catalase and Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase genes (RcApx1, RcApx2, RcApx3, RcCAT1, RcCAT2, RcCSD1, RcCSD2 and RcCSD3) from plant tissues, as well as pRiA4-transformed and normal calli of Rubia cordifolia, and studied their expression by real-time PCR. Transcription profiling revealed that ascorbate peroxidase (RcApx1) and Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (RcCSD1) were the most abundant transcripts present in both plant tissues and non-transformed calli. Catalase genes were weakly expressed in these samples. The pRiA4-transformed calli showed enhanced expression of several genes encoding ROS-detoxifying enzymes. Confocal microscopy imaging revealed decreased ROS level in pRiA4-transformed calli compared to the control. These results demonstrate that A.rhizogenes, like other plant pathogens, uses a strategy aimed at decreasing ROS levels in host cells through the general upregulation of its antioxidant genes.

CDPK-driven changes in the intracellular ROS level and plant secondary metabolism

Heterologous expression of a constitutively active calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) gene was previously shown to increase secondary metabolite production in cultured cells of Rubia cordifolia, but the critical question of how CDPK activates secondary metabolism remains to be answered. In this article, we report that the expression of the Arabidopsis CDPK gene, AtCPK1, in R. cordifolia cells caused moderate and stable elevation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. In contrast, the non-active, mutated AtCPK1 gene did not cause such an effect. The active AtCPK1 also increased cell size, likely by restricting cell division. These results are consistent with the model in which constitutive expression of AtCPK1 mimics the effects of elicitors, acting on secondary metabolism via the activation of ROS production.

Application of Agrobacterium Rol Genes in Plant Biotechnology: A Natural Phenomenon of Secondary Metabolism Regulation

The rolA, rolB and rolC genes are plant oncogenes that are carried in plasmids of the plant pathogen Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Following agrobacterial infection, these genes are transferred into the plant genome and cause tumor formation and hairy root disease. The rolB and rolC genes of Agrobacterium rhizogenes were studied extensively for the past two decades as regulators of cell growth and differentiation. A new function for the rol genes in plant-Agrobacterium interactions became apparent with the discovery that these genes are also potential activators of secondary metabolism in transformed cells in different plant families (reviewed by Bulgakov, 2008). Classically, rolB and rolC have been considered closely related genes, possessing similar biological functions. However, they demonstrated different, or even opposite, effects on cell death processes (Schmulling et al., 1988), calcium balance in transformed cells (Bulgakov et al., 2003), sensitivity to auxin (Maurel et al., 1991), growth of transformed tissues (Capone et al., 1989) and secondary metabolism (Shkryl et al., 2008). Plant-microbe interactions often lead to the development of defense mechanisms in plant cells. Since reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a pivotal role in the regulation of plant defense mechanisms, extensive experiments were performed to study the relationship between secondary metabolism (phytoalexin production) and the production of ROS in cells transformed with rol genes. Here, we summarize these results. Surprisingly, the rolB and rolC genes not only activated phytoalexin production but also suppressed intracellular ROS levels. This combination of defense responses, coupled with the effect of ROS suppression, represents a unique case in plant-microbe interactions. These findings suggest that bypassing upstream cell control mechanisms may be useful in the construction of plant cells possessing stable production of secondary metabolites. This chapter describes the new findings relating to secondary metabolism and ROS production under the individual and combined expression of the rol genes in plant cells.

Can plant oncogenes inhibit programmed cell death? The rolB oncogene reduces apoptosis-like symptoms in transformed plant cells

The rolB oncogene was previously identified as an important player in ROS metabolism in transformed plant cells. Numerous reports indicate a crucial role for animal oncogenes in apoptotic cell death. Whether plant oncogenes such as rolB can induce programmed cell death (PCD) in transformed plant cells is of particular importance. In this investigation, we used a single-cell assay based on confocal microscopy and fluorescent dyes capable of discriminating between apoptotic and necrotic cells. Our results indicate that the expression of rolB in plant cells was sufficient to decrease the proportion of apoptotic cells in steady-state conditions and diminish the rate of apoptotic cells during induced PCD. These data suggest that plant oncogenes, like animal oncogenes, may be involved in the processes mediating PCD.

Cucumarioside A2-2 Causes Macrophage Activation in Mouse Spleen

The immunomodulatory effect of triterpene glycoside cucumarioside A2-2 (CA2-2), isolated from the Far Eastern sea cucumber Cucumaria japonica, was compared with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on mouse spleen. It has been shown that the intraperitoneal (i.p.) glycoside administration leads to increased spleen macrophage activating markers iba-1, IL-1β, iNOs, ROS and NO formation, with additional change of macrophage phenotype to M1. The mass spectrometry profiles of peptide/protein were obtained using MALDI-TOF-MS on the different parts of spleen sections isolated by laser mircodissection techniques. It was found that i.p. stimulation of animals with CA2-2 leads to marked changes in the intensity of the characteristic peaks of spleen peptides/proteins, primarily in red pulp.

Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using transgenic Nicotiana tabacum callus culture expressing silicatein gene from marine sponge Latrunculia oparinae

Abstract In the present investigation, transgenic tobacco callus cultures and plants overexpressing the silicatein gene LoSilA1 from marine sponge Latrunculia oparinae were obtained and their bioreduction behaviour for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) was studied. Synthesized nanoparticles were characterized using UV–visible spectroscopy, Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), atomic flame electron microscopy (AFM) and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA). Our measurements showed that the reduction of silver nitrate produced spherical AgNPs with diameters in the range of 12–80 nm. The results of XRD analysis proved the crystal nature of the obtained AgNPs. FTIR analysis indicated that particles are reduced and stabilized in solution by the capping agent, which is likely to be proteins present in the callus extract. Interestingly, the reduction potential of LoSiLA1-transgenic callus line was increased three-fold compared with the empty vector-transformed calli. The synthesized AgNPs were found to exhibit strong antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Agrobacterium rhizogenes. The present study reports the first evidence for using genetic engineering for activation of the reduction potential of plant cells for synthesis of biocidal AgNPs.

Emerging Roles of Agrobacterial Plant‐Transforming Oncogenes in Plant Defense Reactions

For recent years, engineering plant metabolic pathways by using rol genes looks promising in several aspects. New directions of rol‐gene studies are highlighted in this work underlying the unique regulatory properties of the genes. It is known that following agrobacterial infection, the Agrobacterium rhizogenes rolA, rolB and rolC genes are transferred to plant genome, causing tumor formation and hairy root disease. In this report, we show mat these oncogenes are also involved in regulation of plant defense reactions, including the production of secondary metabolites. Situations occur where the rol genes perform their own critical function to regulate secondary metabolism by bypassing upstream plant control mechanisms and directing defense reactions via a “short cut.” The rolC gene expressed in transformed plant cells is efficient in establishing an enhanced resistance of host cells to salt and temperature stresses. The emerging complexity of the rol‐gene triggered effects and the involvement of signals generated by these genes in basic processes of cell biology such as calcium and ROS signaling indicate that the plant oncogenes, like some animal protooncogenes, use sophisticated strategies to affect cell growth and differentiation. The data raise the intriguing possibility that some components of plant and animal oncogene signaling pathways share common features.For recent years, engineering plant metabolic pathways by using rol genes looks promising in several aspects. New directions of rol‐gene studies are highlighted in this work underlying the unique regulatory properties of the genes. It is known that following agrobacterial infection, the Agrobacterium rhizogenes rolA, rolB and rolC genes are transferred to plant genome, causing tumor formation and hairy root disease. In this report, we show mat these oncogenes are also involved in regulation of plant defense reactions, including the production of secondary metabolites. Situations occur where the rol genes perform their own critical function to regulate secondary metabolism by bypassing upstream plant control mechanisms and directing defense reactions via a “short cut.” The rolC gene expressed in transformed plant cells is efficient in establishing an enhanced resistance of host cells to salt and temperature stresses. The emerging complexity of the rol‐gene triggered effects and the involvement of signals g...