Tatsuya Nakata

English vocabulary learning with word lists, word cards and computers: Implications from cognitive psychology research for optimal spaced learning

The spacing effect is known to be one of the most robust phenomena in experimental psychology, and many attempts have been made to realize effective spaced learning for L2 vocabulary learning. This study compares vocabulary learning with word lists, word cards, and computers in order to identify which material leads to the most superior spaced learning. In the experiment, 226 Japanese high school students studied ten English words with one of the three learning materials: lists, cards, and computers. One-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed that although no significant difference existed between the Card group and the other two, the PC group significantly outperformed the List group on the delayed post-test. Item analysis using Chi-squares demonstrated that on the delayed post-test, the List groups successful recall rates for four of the ten items were significantly lower than those of the Card or PC group. Correlational analysis indicated that the time invested in learning and the subsequent post-test scores did not correlate significantly for the List and Card groups. Paradoxically, a negative correlation was observed between the PC groups study time and their post-test scores. The lack of meaningful relationships between the study time and subsequent retention may be partially due to the limited ability of certain learners to learn effectively while using certain materials. A questionnaire given to the participants found that, in general, computers were evaluated more favorably than lists or cards. At the same time, however, learners exhibited large variations in their evaluation of computers, implying the importance of considering individual differences when introducing CALL to learners. In summary, the study has demonstrated the superiority of computers over lists, the limited advantage of word cards over lists, and no statistically significant difference between computers and cards. The findings are significant because although the advantages of cards or computers have been advocated, no study has ever tested such claims empirically.

Computer-Assisted Second Language Vocabulary Learning in a Paired-Associate Paradigm: A Critical Investigation of Flashcard Software

The present study aims to conduct a comprehensive investigation of flashcard software for learning vocabulary in a second language. Nine flashcard programs were analysed using 17 criteria derived from previous studies on flashcard learning as well as paired-associate learning. Results suggest that in general, most programs have been developed in a way that maximises vocabulary learning. For instance, seven of the nine programs allow flashcard creation, offer multilingual support and allow learners to add contexts, audios or images to flashcards. Furthermore, eight programs provide various types of exercises, and nine programs support scheduling. At the same time, the present study has also shown that existing flashcard programs have some room for improvement. More specifically, most programs are limited in their ability to support data entry, increase retrieval effort and promote generative use of target words. When individual programs are compared, iKnow! seems to be the best program among those investigated. It offers the most comprehensive support for data entry, automatically generates distractors for multiple-choice exercises and increases retrieval effort by systematically introducing various types of exercises. The variations among the programs in their design suggest that there do not exist commonly accepted guidelines for how flashcard software should be designed.

EFFECTS OF EXPANDING AND EQUAL SPACING ON SECOND LANGUAGE VOCABULARY LEARNING: Does Gradually Increasing Spacing Increase Vocabulary Learning?

Although expanding spacing is often regarded as the most effective practice schedule, studies comparing equal and expanding spacing have yielded mixed results. The present study set out to examine whether the amount of spacing and the retention interval may influence the effects of expanding and equal spacing on second language (L2) vocabulary learning. One hundred and twenty-eight Japanese college students studied 20 English-Japanese word pairs. The type of spacing (expanding and equal) and the amount of spacing (massed, short, medium, and long) were manipulated. Results demonstrated a limited, yet statistically significant, advantage of expanding spacing. The finding is significant because this is the first L2 study to find the superiority of expanding over equal spacing. The main effect of the amount of spacing was also significant, producing large effect sizes. Taken together, the results suggest that expanding spacing may facilitate vocabulary learning, although introducing spacing may have a larger effect.

Effects of feedback timing on second language vocabulary learning: does delaying feedback increase learning?

Feedback, or information given to learners regarding their performance, is found to facilitate second language (L2) learning. Research also suggests that the timing of feedback (whether it is provided immediately or after a delay) may affect learning. The purpose of the present study was to identify the optimal feedback timing for L2 vocabulary learning. This study differs from previous feedback timing studies in two important respects. First, unlike some previous studies, feedback timing was not confounded with lag to test (interval between the last encounter with a given item and the posttest). Second, in order to test the view that delayed feedback may be particularly effective when learners make few errors during learning, the present study manipulated the frequency of practice to influence learning phase performance. In this study, 98 Japanese college students studied 16 English–Japanese word pairs. Immediate feedback was given immediately after each response, whereas delayed feedback was withheld until all target items were practised. Learning was measured by posttests administered immediately, 1 week, and 4 weeks after the treatment. Results suggested that when lag to test is controlled, feedback timing may have little effect on L2 vocabulary learning regardless of the frequency of errors during learning.

Do the cognacy characteristics of loanwords make them more easily learned than noncognates

This study investigates the effects of cognacy on vocabulary learning. The research expands on earlier designs by measuring learning of English–Japanese cognates with both decontextualized and contextualized tests, scoring responses at two levels of sensitivity, and examining learning in a more ecologically valid setting. The results indicated that Japanese learners could successfully recall the L2 forms of more cognates than noncognates, supporting earlier findings. However, when scoring was sensitive to partial knowledge of written form, the results indicated that greater knowledge of noncognates was gained. Because there was greater potential for learning noncognates due to the higher pretest scores for cognates, relative gains were also examined. The relative gains were greater for cognates than noncognates on a form recall test. The results of a cloze test contrasted with those of the form recall test. Gains were significantly larger for noncognates than cognates immediately after the treatment although no statistically significant difference existed 1 week after learning. Taken together, the research indicates that although the L2 forms of cognates may be more easily learned, it may be more challenging for second language learners to use cognates than noncognates, at least shortly after learning.

DOES REPEATED PRACTICE MAKE PERFECT? THE EFFECTS OF WITHIN-SESSION REPEATED RETRIEVAL ON SECOND LANGUAGE VOCABULARY LEARNING

Although research shows that repetition increases second language vocabulary learning, only several studies have examined the long-term effects of increasing retrieval frequency in one learning session. With this in mind, the present study examined the effects of within-session repeated retrieval on vocabulary learning. The study is original in that it (a) gave posttests after a delay greater than 2 weeks, (b) employed a paired-associate format to exert strict control over the treatment, (c) considered time-on-task as a factor, and (d) used the same target items for different frequency levels. In this study, 98 Japanese learners studied 16 English-Japanese word pairs using one of the following four retrieval frequency levels: one, three, five, or seven. Results showed that five and seven retrievals contributed to significantly higher scores than one and three retrievals regardless of the posttest timing. When time-on-task was controlled, however, one retrieval led to the largest gain.

DOES STUDYING VOCABULARY IN SMALLER SETS INCREASE LEARNING

The present study examined the effects of part and whole learning on the acquisition of second language (L2, English) vocabulary. In whole learning, the materials to be learned are repeated in one large block, whereas, in part learning, the materials are divided into smaller blocks and repeated. Experiment 1 compared the effects of the following three treatments: 20-item whole learning, four-item part learning, and 10-item part learning. Unlike previous studies, part and whole learning were matched in spacing. In Experiment 2, spacing as well as the part-whole learning distinction were manipulated, and the following three treatments were compared: 20-item whole learning, four-item part learning with short spacing, and four-item part learning with long spacing. Results of the two experiments suggest that, (a) as long as spacing is equivalent, the part-whole distinction has little effect on learning, and (b) spacing has a larger effect on learning than the part-whole distinction.

Effects of retrieval formats on second language vocabulary learning

Abstract The present study set out to examine how we can optimize paired-associate learning of second language (L2) vocabulary. In paired-associate learning, retrieval, where learners are required to access information about an L2 word from memory, is found to increase vocabulary learning. Retrieval can be categorized according to dichotomies of (a) recognition versus recall and (b) receptive versus productive. In order to identify the optimal retrieval format, the present study compared the effects of the following four conditions: recognition, recall, hybrid (combination of recall and recognition), and productive recall only. In this study, 64 English-speaking college students studied 60 Swahili-English word pairs using computer-based flashcard software. Results suggested that for paired-associate learning of L2 vocabulary, (a) recall formats are more effective than recognition for the acquisition of productive knowledge of orthography and (b) recognition formats are more desirable than recall when knowledge of spelling is not required.