Teresita Padilla-Benavides

Ouabain modulates epithelial cell tight junction

Epithelial cells treated with high concentrations of ouabain (e.g., 1 μM) retrieve molecules involved in cell contacts from the plasma membrane and detach from one another and their substrates. On the basis of this observation, we suggested that ouabain might also modulate cell contacts at low, nontoxic levels (10 or 50 nM). To test this possibility, we analyzed its effect on a particular type of cell–cell contact: the tight junction (TJ). We demonstrate that at concentrations that neither inhibit K+ pumping nor disturb the K+ balance of the cell, ouabain modulates the degree of sealing of the TJ as measured by transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) and the flux of neutral 3 kDa dextran (JDEX). This modulation is accompanied by changes in the levels and distribution patterns of claudins 1, 2, and 4. Interestingly, changes in TER, JDEX, and claudins behavior are mediated through signal pathways containing ERK1/2 and c-Src, which have distinct effects on each physiological parameter and claudin type. These observations support the theory that at low concentrations, ouabain acts as a modulator of cell–cell contacts.

Mechanisms of copper homeostasis in bacteria

Copper is an important micronutrient required as a redox co-factor in the catalytic centers of enzymes. However, free copper is a potential hazard because of its high chemical reactivity. Consequently, organisms exert a tight control on Cu+ transport (entry-exit) and traffic through different compartments, ensuring the homeostasis required for cuproprotein synthesis and prevention of toxic effects. Recent studies based on biochemical, bioinformatics, and metalloproteomics approaches, reveal a highly regulated system of transcriptional regulators, soluble chaperones, membrane transporters, and target cuproproteins distributed in the various bacterial compartments. As a result, new questions have emerged regarding the diversity and apparent redundancies of these components, their irregular presence in different organisms, functional interactions, and resulting system architectures.

The mechanism of Cu+ transport ATPases: Interaction with Cu+ chaperones and the role of transient metal binding sites

Background: Cytoplasmic chaperones deliver Cu+ to P1B-ATPases for outward transport. Results: Alterations of an invariant electropositive platform, metal ligating residues on the ATPase, and electronegative surface of the chaperone abolish Cu+ transference. Conclusion: Electrostatics drives Cu+ chaperone/ATPase platform interaction. Ligand exchange by carboxyl and thiol groups enable Cu+ release from the chaperone. Significance: The mechanism of transition metal access to transmembrane transport sites is described. Cu+-ATPases are membrane proteins that couple the hydrolysis of ATP to the efflux of cytoplasmic Cu+. In cells, soluble chaperone proteins bind and distribute cytoplasmic Cu+, delivering the ion to the transmembrane metal-binding sites in the ATPase. The structure of Legionella pneumophila Cu+-ATPase (Gourdon, P., Liu, X. Y., Skjørringe, T., Morth, J. P., Møller, L. B., Pedersen, B. P., and Nissen, P. (2011) Nature 475, 59–64) shows that a kinked transmembrane segment forms a “platform” exposed to the cytoplasm. In addition, neighboring invariant Met, Asp, and Glu are located at the “entrance” of the ion path. Mutations of amino acids in these regions of the Archaeoglobus fulgidus Cu+-ATPase CopA do not affect ATPase activity in the presence of Cu+ free in solution. However, Cu+ bound to the corresponding chaperone (CopZ) could not activate the mutated ATPases, and in parallel experiments, CopZ was unable to transfer Cu+ to CopA. Furthermore, mutation of a specific electronegative patch on the CopZ surface abolishes the ATPase activation and Cu+ transference, indicating that the region is required for the CopZ-CopA interaction. Moreover, the data suggest that the interaction is driven by the complementation of the electropositive platform in the ATPase and the electronegative Cu+ chaperone. This docking likely places the Cu+ proximal to the conserved carboxyl and thiol groups in the entrance site that induce metal release from the chaperone via ligand exchange. The initial interaction of Cu+ with the pump is transient because Cu+ is transferred from the entrance site to transmembrane metal-binding sites involved in transmembrane translocation.

A Novel P1B-type Mn2+-transporting ATPase Is Required for Secreted Protein Metallation in Mycobacteria

Background: CtpC is an uncommon metal transport ATPase required for Mycobacterium tuberculosis virulence. Results: CtpC shows Mn2+-ATPase activity. Mutations in ctpC alter Mn2+ homeostasis, increase sensitivity to redox stress, and decrease Mn-superoxide dismutase activity. Conclusion: CtpC is a Mn2+ transport ATPase required for homeostasis and the assembly of secreted metalloproteins in mycobacterium. Significance: CtpC provides a novel mechanism for Mn2+ metallation of secreted proteins. Transition metals are central for bacterial virulence and host defense. P1B-ATPases are responsible for cytoplasmic metal efflux and play roles either in limiting cytosolic metal concentrations or in the maturation of secreted metalloproteins. The P1B-ATPase, CtpC, is required for Mycobacterium tuberculosis survival in a mouse model (Sassetti, C. M., and Rubin, E. J. (2003) Genetic requirements for mycobacterial survival during infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100, 12989–12994). CtpC prevents Zn2+ toxicity, suggesting a role in Zn2+ export from the cytosol (Botella, H., Peyron, P., Levillain, F., Poincloux, R., Poquet, Y., Brandli, I., Wang, C., Tailleux, L., Tilleul, S., Charriere, G. M., Waddell, S. J., Foti, M., Lugo-Villarino, G., Gao, Q., Maridonneau-Parini, I., Butcher, P. D., Castagnoli, P. R., Gicquel, B., de Chastellièr, C., and Neyrolles, O. (2011) Mycobacterial P1-type ATPases mediate resistance to zinc poisoning in human macrophages. Cell Host Microbe 10, 248–259). However, key metal-coordinating residues and the overall structure of CtpC are distinct from Zn2+-ATPases. We found that isolated CtpC has metal-dependent ATPase activity with a strong preference for Mn2+ over Zn2+. In vivo, CtpC is unable to complement Escherichia coli lacking a functional Zn2+-ATPase. Deletion of M. tuberculosis or Mycobacterium smegmatis ctpC leads to cytosolic Mn2+ accumulation but no alterations in other metals levels. Whereas ctpC-deficient M. tuberculosis is sensitive to extracellular Zn2+, the M. smegmatis mutant is not. Both ctpC mutants are sensitive to oxidative stress, which might explain the Zn2+-sensitive phenotype of the M. tuberculosis ctpC mutant. CtpC is a high affinity/slow turnover ATPase, suggesting a role in protein metallation. Consistent with this hypothesis, mutation of CtpC leads to a decrease of Mn2+ bound to secreted proteins and of the activity of secreted Fe/Mn-superoxide dismutase, particularly in M. smegmatis. Alterations in the assembly of metalloenzymes involved in redox stress response might explain the sensitivity of M. tuberculosis ctpC mutants to oxidative stress and growth and persistence defects in mice infection models.

Mechanism of ATPase-mediated Cu+ Export and Delivery to Periplasmic Chaperones: THE INTERACTION OF ESCHERICHIA COLI CopA AND CusF*

Background: It is unknown how soluble chaperones acquire Cu+ for delivery to metalloproteins and transporters. Results: Cu+ transfer from a Cu+ efflux ATPase to a periplasmic chaperone was observed. Conclusion: Specific transfer occurs after protein-protein recognition and interaction. Significance: These findings explain the requirement of multiple homologous transporters and chaperones for specificity in Cu+ delivery to alternative protein targets. Cellular copper homeostasis requires transmembrane transport and compartmental trafficking while maintaining the cell essentially free of uncomplexed Cu2+/+. In bacteria, soluble cytoplasmic and periplasmic chaperones bind and deliver Cu+ to target transporters or metalloenzymes. Transmembrane Cu+-ATPases couple the hydrolysis of ATP to the efflux of cytoplasmic Cu+. Cytosolic Cu+ chaperones (CopZ) interact with a structural platform in Cu+-ATPases (CopA) and deliver copper into the ion permeation path. CusF is a periplasmic Cu+ chaperone that supplies Cu+ to the CusCBA system for efflux to the extracellular milieu. In this report, using Escherichia coli CopA and CusF, direct Cu+ transfer from the ATPase to the periplasmic chaperone was observed. This required the specific interaction of the Cu+-bound form of CopA with apo-CusF for subsequent metal transfer upon ATP hydrolysis. As expected, the reverse Cu+ transfer from CusF to CopA was not observed. Mutation of CopA extracellular loops or the electropositive surface of CusF led to a decrease in Cu+ transfer efficiency. On the other hand, mutation of Met and Glu residues proposed to be part of the metal exit site in the ATPase yielded enzymes with lower turnover rates, although Cu+ transfer was minimally affected. These results show how soluble chaperones obtain Cu+ from transmembrane transporters. Furthermore, by explaining the movement of Cu+ from the cytoplasmic pool to the extracellular milieu, these data support a mechanism by which cytoplasmic Cu+ can be precisely directed to periplasmic targets via specific transporter-chaperone interactions.

Evolution of a plant-specific copper chaperone family for chloroplast copper homeostasis

Significance The prevailing dogma is that access to copper (Cu+) is restricted to the extent that protein–protein interactions mediate the routing of Cu+ from transporters in the plasma membrane to target cuproenzymes or transporters within subcellular compartments. The soluble proteins that distribute Cu+ are called metallochaperones. Although the chloroplast requires Cu+, a chaperone that delivers this essential cofactor has remained a missing link in the model for plastid Cu+ delivery. Using a comparative genomic approach and validating by biochemical characterization, we have discovered a missing chaperone. Uniquely, the previously unidentified chaperone family has evolved from the transporter to which it delivers Cu+. We also uncover an interaction between the thylakoid-localized transporter and the Cu+ chaperone for stromal Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, which highlights the complexity of Cu+ distribution networks. Metallochaperones traffic copper (Cu+) from its point of entry at the plasma membrane to its destination. In plants, one destination is the chloroplast, which houses plastocyanin, a Cu-dependent electron transfer protein involved in photosynthesis. We present a previously unidentified Cu+ chaperone that evolved early in the plant lineage by an alternative-splicing event of the pre-mRNA encoding the chloroplast P-type ATPase in Arabidopsis 1 (PAA1). In several land plants, recent duplication events created a separate chaperone-encoding gene coincident with loss of alternative splicing. The plant-specific Cu+ chaperone delivers Cu+ with specificity for PAA1, which is flipped in the envelope relative to prototypical bacterial ATPases, compatible with a role in Cu+ import into the stroma and consistent with the canonical catalytic mechanism of these enzymes. The ubiquity of the chaperone suggests conservation of this Cu+-delivery mechanism and provides a unique snapshot into the evolution of a Cu+ distribution pathway. We also provide evidence for an interaction between PAA2, the Cu+-ATPase in thylakoids, and the Cu+-chaperone for Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (CCS), uncovering a Cu+ network that has evolved to fine-tune Cu+ distribution.

The Polarized Distribution of Na+,K+-ATPase: Role of the Interaction between β Subunits

Na+,K+-ATPase polarity depends on the interaction between the β subunits of Na+,K+-ATPases located on neighboring cells. In the present work, we use energy transfer methods (FRET), in vivo to demonstrate that these β subunits interact directly at the intercellular space of epithelial cells.

Identification of a Chemical Probe for Family VIII Bromodomains through Optimization of a Fragment Hit

The acetyl post-translational modification of chromatin at selected histone lysine residues is interpreted by an acetyl-lysine specific interaction with bromodomain reader modules. Here we report the discovery of the potent, acetyl-lysine-competitive, and cell active inhibitor PFI-3 that binds to certain family VIII bromodomains while displaying significant, broader bromodomain family selectivity. The high specificity of PFI-3 for family VIII was achieved through a novel bromodomain binding mode of a phenolic headgroup that led to the unusual displacement of water molecules that are generally retained by most other bromodomain inhibitors reported to date. The medicinal chemistry program that led to PFI-3 from an initial fragment screening hit is described in detail, and additional analogues with differing family VIII bromodomain selectivity profiles are also reported. We also describe the full pharmacological characterization of PFI-3 as a chemical probe, along with phenotypic data on adipocyte and myoblast cell differentiation assays.

Differential roles for the Co2+/Ni2+ transporting ATPases, CtpD and CtpJ, in Mycobacterium tuberculosis virulence

The genome of Mycobacterium tuberculosis encodes two paralogous P1B4‐ATPases, CtpD (Rv1469) and CtpJ (Rv3743). Both proteins showed ATPase activation by Co2+ and Ni2+, and both appear to be required for metal efflux from the cell. However, using a combination of biochemical and genetic studies we found that these proteins play non‐redundant roles in virulence and metal efflux. CtpJ expression is induced by Co2+ and this protein possesses a relatively high turnover rate. A ctpJ deletion mutant accumulated Co2+, indicating that this ATPase controls cytoplasmic metal levels. In contrast, CtpD expression is induced by redox stressors and this protein displays a relatively low turnover rate. A ctpD mutant failed to accumulate metal, suggesting an alternative cellular function. ctpD is cotranscribed with two thioredoxin genes trxA (Rv1470), trxB (Rv1471), and an enoyl‐coA hydratase (Rv1472), indicating a possible role for CtpD in the metallation of these redox‐active proteins. Supporting this, in vitro metal binding assays showed that TrxA binds Co2+ and Ni2+. Mutation of ctpD, but not ctpJ, reduced bacterial fitness in the mouse lung, suggesting that redox maintenance, but not Co2+ accumulation, is important for growth in vivo.

Brg1 Controls the Expression of Pax7 to Promote Viability and Proliferation of Mouse Primary Myoblasts

Brg1 (Brahma‐related gene 1) is a catalytic component of the evolutionarily conserved mammalian SWI/SNF ATP‐dependent chromatin remodeling enzymes that disrupt histone‐DNA contacts on the nucleosome. While the requirement for the SWI/SNF enzymes in cell differentiation has been extensively studied, its role in precursor cell proliferation and survival is not as well defined. Muscle satellite cells constitute the stem cell pool that sustains and regenerates myofibers in adult skeletal muscle. Here, we show that deletion of Brg1 in primary mouse myoblasts derived from muscle satellite cells cultured ex vivo leads to a cell proliferation defect and apoptosis. We determined that Brg1 regulates cell proliferation and survival by controlling chromatin remodeling and activating transcription at the Pax7 promoter, which is expressed during somite development and is required for controlling viability of the satellite cell population. Reintroduction of catalytically active Brg1 or of Pax7 into Brg1‐deficient satellite cells rescued the apoptotic phenotype and restored proliferation. These data demonstrate that Brg1 functions as a positive regulator for cellular proliferation and survival of primary myoblasts. Therefore, the regulation of gene expression through Brg1‐mediated chromatin remodeling is critical not just for skeletal muscle differentiation but for maintaining the myoblast population as well. J. Cell. Physiol. 230: 2990–2997, 2015.