Terri Flowerday

Increasing situational interest in the classroom.

This paper explores three ways to increase situational interest in the classroom. Situational interest is defined as temporary interest that arises spontaneously due to environmental factors such as task instructions or an engaging text. We review the history of interest research and summarize recent empirical work. We describe three ways to increase interest based on offering meaningful choices to students, selecting well-organized texts that promote interest, and providing the background knowledge needed to fully understand a topic. We conclude with six specific suggestions for increasing situational interest in the classroom.

The Role of Choice and Interest in Reader Engagement.

The authors examined the effects of choice, topic interest, and situational interest on reading engagement, attitude, and learning. The outcomes were measured using scores on a multiple-choice test, a content essay, and a personal reaction essay, and completion of an attitude checklist. Experiment 1 found a small negative effect for choice on the writing of content essays. Students in the control group, who were not given choice, wrote higher quality content essays. Situational interest had a positive effect on attitude. There were no effects for topic interest on any measure. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1 using a different text. Once again, situational interest had a positive effect on attitude. In addition, higher quality content essays were associated with situational interest. No effects were found for choice or topic interest. These findings support the claim that situational interest, rather than choice or topic interest, promotes engagement.

Teacher Beliefs about Instructional Choice: A Phenomenological Study.

We interviewed 36 practicing teachers, using phenomenological methods to examine what, when, where, and to whom teachers offer choice. Teachers participated in pilot, interview, and member-check phases. Our final results focused on the following main points: (a) Teachers believe that choice promotes learning and motivation; (b) choice is used in a number of ways; (c) teachers have a variety of reasons for giving choices; and (d) teachers imposed limits on classroom choice based on (e) student age, ability, and prior knowledge and (f) teacher experience, efficacy, and management style.

The Role of Choice in Reader Engagement

Two experiments investigated the effect of choice on cognitive and affective engagement during reading. Both experiments compared college students who either selected what they read or were assigned the same story without being allowed to choose. Experiment 1 found that unrestricted choice heightened favorable affective perceptions of the reading experience compared with denied-choice and control groups but had no effect on cognitive measures of engagement. Experiment 2 replicated these findings when individuals within a single group were offered choice or were denied choice. The authors discuss the need for a more explicit theory of choice, which presently does not exist. Most people feel that choice plays an important role in their lives. Experts concur with this view, suggesting that choice is an important determinant of interest, cognitive processing, motivation, and even long-term health (Glasser, 1986; Langer, 1989). For example, Kohn (1993) claimed that choice among younger students positively affects activity level, enthusiasm, creativity, depth of comprehension , self-regulation, and rate of learning. Many recent accounts of effective instruction (Lepper, 1988; Stipek, 1997) and classroom motivation (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996; Stipek, 1993) also support the positive effects of choice. It is surprising then that so few educational studies have examined the role of choice empirically, or postulated theoretical models that articulate the relationship between choice and various aspects of cognitive and affective engagement. Three current lines of research emphasize the role of choice in learning and motivation: self-determination theory, computerized testing theory, and reader response theory. Self-determination theory states that choice has a positive impact on cognitive and affective engagement because it increases intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1992; Deci & Ryan, 1987; Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991). Most studies within this framework have examined the role that controlling environments (e.g., teachers and structured classroom settings) play in autonomy and learning (Flink, Boggiano, & Barrett, 1990; Gromick & Ryan, 1987; Miserandino, 1996). These studies generally suggest that controlling environments reduce a sense of personal autonomy and intrinsic motivation, and result in decreased learning and poorer attitudes about school. A number of other studies have examined the role that perceived control (i.e., selfjudgments of personal competence or autonomy) plays in intrinsic motivation (Boggiano, Main, & Katz, 1988; Skinner, Wellborn, & Cornell, 1990; Williams & Deci, 1996).

Effect of Choice on Cognitive and Affective Engagement

Abstract In 2 experiments, the authors examined the effect of choice on cognitive task performance and affective engagement. The enhanced cognitive engagement hypothesis (ECE) predicted that choice would increase cognitive engagement as measured by performance on a cognitive task such as solving a crossword puzzle or writing an essay. The enhanced affective engagement hypothesis (EAE) predicted that choice would have a positive effect on attitude and effort. Experiment 1 indicated that choice had no positive effect on cognitive engagement but had a positive effect on attitude and effort Experiment 2 showed that self-paced readers who were given a choice of how long to study spent less time and performed more poorly on cognitive measures than researcher-paced readers who did not have a choice. Measures of attitude indicated positive affective engagement associated with choice of study time. Findings from Experiments 1 and 2 supported the EAE but did not support the ECE.

Cognitive and affective effects of seductive details in multimedia learning

Cognitive and affective processes explain contradictory seductive details research.Seductive details and modality of text were varied in a multimedia instruction.A detrimental seductive details effect was found under high load text conditions.Seductive details caused motivational compensatory effect under narration condition.Moderated mediation analyses confirm situational interest to mediate the effect. The present study integrates cognitive and affective aspects of media processing in order to make an argument for reexamining the current cold cognition perspective in multimedia research in favor of a more integrative perspective. The Cognitive-Affective-Theory-of-Learning-with-Media (CATLM) assumes that students need to become motivated to make full use of their cognitive resources. Therefore, and even though seductive details (sds) are additional interesting but unnecessary pieces of information that do not conform with the coherence principle, their possible motivational role should not be dismissed. Using a 2i?3-experimental design, participants (N=123) were asked to learn about biology with multimedia instruction that manipulated modality (text vs. narration) and presence of seductive details (no-sds vs. textual-sds vs. narrated-sds). Results of variance analyses show a modality effect. In addition, moderated mediation analyses with the moderator modality and mediator situational interest confirm the affective mediation assumption with the following two conditional effects. A direct detrimental effect of seductive details on learning performance under the text-condition and an indirect compensatory effect under the narration-condition were shown.

Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Primary School Students' Attitudes on Play, Humour, Learning and Self-Concept: A Comparative Perspective.

ABSTRACT Based on theory and research, social aspects like friendship and sense of relatedness are fundamental in the development of children’s cultural identity and achievement of outcomes. It is argued that this is a motivational aspect often neglected in research studies focusing on students’ motivation and learning. Theory and research on motivation and learning show that interesting relations exist between students’ self‐concept, motivation and preference of learning. Humour is also a factor of importance in relation to peer acceptance and perceived social competence. In any culture, motivation and preference of learning are grounded in values and sets of knowledge. For Indigenous people in particular, cultural values, sense of relatedness and self‐determination are important components of school motivation. In this paper we discuss results from two comparative cross‐cultural studies within the research project The Socio‐Cultural Perspective on Play and Learning. The aim was to compare attitudes and beliefs among Indigenous students of Aboriginal Australian, Navajo Indian, and Norwegian Sámi descent as opposed to students of Anglo Australian, Anglo American and Ethnic Norwegian background. Methodological issues of importance in cross‐cultural research studies like this are discussed. Our research indicates friendship and sense of competence are of importance to students’ motivation to participate and achieve in school, partly confirming results from other research studies. Results regarding interests in play, preference of learning, self‐concept aspects and school motivation orientation are also presented and discussed. We find a sense of relatedness to be a quintessence in this concern, for which reason social learning through social motivation has to be taken more seriously than often is done, in pre‐school and school alike. In these matters we think different cultures may be inspired by each other, along the lines of reciprocal respect. RÉSUMÉ: Ainsi que la théorie et la recherche l’indiquent, amitié et sentiment d’affiliation sont fondamentaux dans le développement de l’identité culturelle des enfants et dans leur résussite. Il est avancé que c’est un aspect souvent négligé dans les études portant sur la motivation et les apprentissages des élèves. La théorie et la recherche sur la motivation et les apprentissages montrent que des relations intéressantes existent entre l’image de soi, la motivation et la préférence dans les apprentissages, chez les élèves. L’humour est également un facteur d’importance quant à l’acceptation par un pair et la perception de la compétence sociale. Dans toute culture, la motivation et la préférence dans les apprentissages sont fondées sur des valeurs et un ensemble de connaissances. Pour les populations indigènes en particulier, les valeurs culturelles, le sentiment d’affiliation et l’autodétermination sont des composantes importantes de la motivation scolaire. Dans cet article, nous discutons les résultats de deux études interculturelles dans le cadre du projet de recherche La Perspective Socioculturelle du Jeu et de l’Apprentissage. L’objectif était de comparer les attitudes et les croyances des élèves d’origine aborigène, navajo et sami avec celles des élèves anglo‐australiens, anglo‐américains et norvégiens. Des questions méthodologiques importantes dans les études interculturelles comme celle‐ci sont discutées. Notre recherche indique que l’amitié et le sentiment de compétence sont d’une grande importance pour la motivation des élèves à participer et réussir à l’école ; ce qui confirme en partie les résultats obtenus par d’autres études de recherches. Les résultats concernant l’intérêt porté au jeu, la préférence d’apprentissage, les aspects de l’image de soi ainsi que l’orientation de la motivation scolaire sont également présentés et discutés. Nous trouvons que le sentiment d’affiliation est la quintessence de tout ceci, raison pour laquelle l’apprentissage grâce à la motivation sociale doit être pris plus au sérieux qu’on ne le fait généralement, tant dans l’enseignement préscolaire que scolaire. A cet égard, nous pensons que les différentes cultures pourraient s’inspirer entre elles, dans un respect réciproque. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Auf der Basis von Theorie und Forschung erscheinen soziale Aspekte wie Freundschaft und Zugehörigkeitsgefühl als fundamental für die Entwicklung der kulturellen Identität des Kindes und seiner Möglichkeiten von Leistung und Erfolg. Es wird argumentiert, dass dies ein motivierender Aspekt sei, der oft in den Forschungen über Motivation und Lernen der Studierenden vergessen werde. Theorie und Forschung über Motivation und Lernen zeigen, dass es interessante Verbindungen zwischen der Selbstwahrnehmung, der Motivation und den bevorzugten Lernstoffen gibt. In Bezug auf die Akzeptanz unter Gleichaltrigen und die wahrgenommene soziale Kompetenz ist auch der Humor ein wichtiger Faktor. In jeder Kultur erweisen sich Motivation und Lernpräferenzen als in Werten und Wissensgebieten fundiert. Insbesondere für eine Urbevölkerung sind kulturelle Werte, das Gefühl von Zugehörigkeit und Selbstbestimmung wichtige Komponenten für die Motivation in der Schule. In diesem Paper diskutieren wir die Resultate zweier komparativer interkultureller Studien innerhalb des Forschungsprojekts, Soziokulturelle Perspektiven in Spiel und Lernen’. Das Ziel war, Haltungen und Überzeugungen zwischen Schulkindern, die aus der Urbevölkerung Australiens, der Navajo Indianer und der norwegischen Samen stammten, mit solchen von Schulkindern, die einen anglo‐australischen, anglo‐amerikanischen und einen norwegischen Hintergrund hatten, zu vergleichen. Methodisch wichtige Fragen eines interkulturellen Forschungsprojekts, wie es dieses ist, werden diskutiert. Unsere Forschung deutet darauf hin, dass Freundschaft und ein Gefühl von Kompetenz wichtig sind für die Motivation der Schulkinder sich zu beteiligen und in der Schule Erfolg zu haben, bestätigt teilweise durch Ergebnisse anderer Forschungsstudien. Resultate zum Interesse am Spielen, zu Lernpräferenzen, zu Aspekten des Selbstkonzepts und zur Ausrichtung der Schulmotivation werden ebenfalls präsentiert und diskutiert. Wir finden ein Gefühl von Bezogenheit als die Quintessenz in dieser Hinsicht, so dass die Begründung des sozialen Lernens durch soziale Motivation mehr beachtet werden muss, als es manchmal der Fall ist, in Kindergärten ebenso wie auch in der Schule. Wir denken, dass sich verschiedene Kulturen gegenseitig und in gegenseitigem Respekt darin zu inspirieren vermögen. RESUMEN: Basado en teoría e investigación, aspectos sociales como la amistad y un sentido de relacionarse son fundamentales en el desarrollo de la identidad cultural y rendimiento académico de los niños y niñas. Se plantea que este es un aspecto motivacional que se desatiende en las investigaciones que enfocan en la motivación y aprendizaje de los estudiantes. La teoría e investigaciones sobre la motivación y aprendizaje demuestran que existen relaciones interesantes entre el auto‐concepto, la motivación, y la preferencia de aprendizaje. El humor también es un factor de importancia en relación a la aceptación en el grupo de personas de la misma edad y condiciones, así también como la competencia social percibida. En cualquier cultura, la motivación y preferencia de aprendizaje tienen sus raices en aspectos valóricos y de conocimientos. Para poblaciones indígenas en particular, los valores culturales, sentido de relacionarse, y auto‐determinación son componentes importantes de la motivación escolar. En este documento nosotros presentamos los resultados de dos investigaciones comparativas entre múltiples culturas que están dentro del proyecto de investigación que se llama, ‘La Perspectiva Socio‐Cultural del Juego y Aprendizaje’. El propósito era comparar las actitudes y creencias entre estudiantes indígenas de los Aboriginales Australianos, Los Navajos en Estados Unidos, y los Sami Noruegos en comparación con estudiantes Anglo Australianos, Anglo Estadounidenses, y Noruegos Etnicos. Aspectos metodológicos de importancia en estudios de investigación sobre múltiples culturas como este son discutidos. Nuestra investigación indica que la amistad y un sentido de competencia son importantes para la motivación de estudiantes para que participen y rindan en la escuela, parcialmente confirmando resultados de otras investigaciones. Resultados en relación a sus intereses en el juego, preferencia de aprendizaje, aspectos de auto‐concepto, y la orientación de la motivación escolar también se presentan. Encontramos que un sentido de relacionarse es una quintesencia en esta área, por lo cual el aprendizaje social a través de la motivación social debe tomarse en cuenta más seriamente de lo que ha sido el caso anteriormente, tanto en la educación pre‐escolar como en la básica y secundaria. En estos asuntos, pensamos que las culturas diferentes podrían inspirar unas a otras, como un respeto recíproco.

Response: Dempster and Corkill's “Interference and Inhibition in Cognition and Behavior: Unifying Themes for Educational Psychology”

Dempster and Corkill present a persuasive case for the utility of the concepts of interference and inhibition in their review, “Interference and Inhibition in Cognition and Behavior: Unifying Themes for Educational Psychology.” We were especially attracted to their drawing attention to the role of inhibition in learning and to the argument that closer links of educational psychology to neuroscience are needed. At a general level of analysis, we agreed that the concepts of interference and inhibition can provide a unifying framework for describing phenomena in several areas of inquiry, but these concepts seemed to us to be less useful for understanding structured, meaningful learning in instructional domains. Overall, we viewed Dempster and Corkills review as a creative effort that usefully redirects our attention to neglected basic learning processes.