Thomas M. Beckley

Resource Dependence and Community Well‐Being in Rural Canada*

Abstract  The well-being of residents of resource dependent communities is a question of traditional interest to rural sociologists. The label “resource dependent” obscures how this relationship may vary between particular resource industries, regions, or indicators of well-being. Few analyses have compared the relationship between well-being and resource dependence across different industries, nor tested competing theories about the relationship between resource dependence and well-being. Our paper presents an overview of the relationship between resource dependence—agriculture, fisheries, mining, energy, forestry—and human well-being in Canada. Analysis of 1996 Statistics Canada data revealed a great deal of variation in the effect of “resource” dependence on indicators of well-being (e.g., human capital, unemployment, income): some industries exhibit fairly positive outcomes (e.g., agriculture), others more negative outcomes (e.g., fishing). Consistent with analyses conducted in the United States, these relationships vary by region, suggesting the need for models that incorporate the particulars of place and industry.

Rural-urban differences in environmental concern in Canada.

Distinctions between rural and urban populations are well documented in environmental sociology literature. Rural and urban places may exert different influences on participation in environmentally supportive behavior (ESB) as well as on other forms of environmental concern (EC). The influence of these distinct geographies may be due to present circumstances or because of childhood socialization in these places. Using data from a national survey in Canada (n51 664), we use cognitive (basic values, environmental worldview, and environmental attitude) and behavioral indicators (public and private sphere) of EC to explore differences among rural and urban populations and we include analyses accounting for place of socialization. We extend the conventional private sphere category of ESB by including stewardship behaviors. Results showed few differences between rural and urban residents on indicators of EC. Rural residents, however, scored higher on altruistic values, placed a higher priority on the environment, and reported higher participation in recycling and stewardship behaviors. Analysis that included place of socialization showed differences on environmental worldview, basic values, and some ESB. In terms of ESB, we conclude that residence and place of socialization may be less of a factor than opportunity and highlight the importance of providing services and facilities. We recommend future research on residence and ESB include a variety of behaviors that reflect opportunities for both rural and urban residents.

Critical Analysis of the Relationship between Local Ownership and Community Resiliency

Collectively, current resource-development literature has given little attention to organizational features of ownership as important variables in community resilience. By drawing from six local buyout cases in Canadas forest sector, we reveal the complexity and numerous constraints on local ownership and expose a more nuanced context than most sociologists tend to consider. Our findings suggest that the meaning of local ownership and community resilience varies depending upon the composition (e.g., private vs. public; mill vs. forest license vs. coupled mill & forest license), type (social, cooperative, trust and/or direct-share ownership), extent of ownership (percentage of local versus extra-local shares), and the level of control (e.g., proportion of locally held seats on the Board of Directors) associated with ownership. Future research on local ownership should more carefully differentiate between the nature of local ownership and its associated outcomes.

Capturing Old-Growth Values for Use in Forest Decision-Making

Old-growth forests have declined significantly across the world. Decisions related to old growth are often mired in challenges of value diversity, conflict, data gaps, and resource pressures. This article describes old-growth values of citizens and groups in Nova Scotia, Canada, for integration in sustainable forest management (SFM) decision-making. The study is based on data from 76 research subjects who participated in nine field trips to forest stands. Research subjects were drawn from Aboriginal groups, environmental organizations, forestry professionals, and rural and urban publics. Diaries, group discussions, and rating sheets were used to elicit information during the field trips. Findings show that different elicitation techniques can influence the articulation of intensity with which some values are held. In addition, certain values are more often associated with old-growth than with other forest-age classes. Some values associated with old-growth are considered more important than others, and some silvicultural treatments are perceived to compromise old-growth values more than others. Demographic characteristics, such as constituency group, gender, and age, are shown to influence value priorities. Ideas on how to incorporate old-growth values into SFM decision-making are highlighted.

“If We Knew What it Was We Were Doing, it Would Not be Called Research, Would it? 1 ”

Williams and Patterson (2007) raise provocative points in their response to our article. We welcome the opportunity to reflect on the trajectory of our collaboration and to further clarify our own ...

Carrots and Sticks: New Brunswick and Maine Forest Landowner Perceptions Toward Incentives and Regulations

The governments of countries that allow private land ownership have two main tools to motivate landowner behavior: regulations and incentives. This research examines landowner preferences toward these policy tools and asks specifically: Do private forest landowners in New Brunswick and Maine believe that regulations and/or incentives are effective means to motivate responsible stewardship? Can landowners identify explicit regulations and policies that restrict property rights? Also, we were interested to see if any discernible differences existed between these adjacent jurisdictions from different countries, but that share similar forests and a similar settlement history. We identified and interviewed diverse landowners, recorded and transcribed our discussions, and analyzed the results using a grounded theory approach. Findings suggest that both New Brunswick and Maine participants are fairly comfortable with most regulations and many agreed that a combination of incentives and regulations are in fact useful. Furthermore, landowners in New Brunswick discussed non-monetary incentives as a mechanism to reward “good” stewardship; while Maine respondents articulated a degree of responsible stewardship that transcends a need to incentivize landowners. This study demonstrates that diverse landowners may be more comfortable with environmental regulations than previously understood and may be interested in non-monetary incentives.

Landowners Perceptions of Their Moral and Ethical Stewardship Responsibilities in New Brunswick, Canada, and Maine, USA

The province of New Brunswick (NB), Canada and the state of Maine (ME), USA are heavily forested jurisdictions whose forests provide many social, ecological, and economic functions. Roughly a third of NB and ME’s forested land is owned by private, non-industrial owners [sometimes called family forests or woodlot owners]. The choices of thousands of individual parcel owners of forest land determine the fate of these ecosystems. Ownership of forest land implies a social contract between the landowners and the rest of society. Previous research has focused on utilitarian conceptions of land use such as landowner rights and motivations. This study contributes to the discussion by inviting small-scale forest landowners in NB and ME to articulate their notions of landowner responsibilities. Through qualitative methods, this study ascertains participants’ self-reported behaviors that indicate their overall attitudes about the responsibility of forestland ownership. Respondents from both NB and ME expressed strong sentiments toward using and/or managing their land in ways they considered beneficial to both themselves and to the ecosystems in which they are embedded, or as Leopold (A sand county almanac: and sketches here and there. Oxford University Press, New York, 1949) described, the biotic community. Results varied with regard to responsibility to other entities such as: their immediate families, wildlife and the public or broader society. The results offer insight into what and who influences landowners and, what they value.

Identifying energy discourses in Canada with Q methodology: moving beyond the environment versus economy debates

Drawing inspiration from the literature on social imaginaries and cultural models, this study explores contending perspectives on energy and sustainability, moving beyond a simplistic understanding of support or opposition to specific energy developments. With a comparative study in three regions of Canada, we use Q methodology to identify five key discourses on energy issues: (1) climate change is a primary concern, (2) maintain the energy economy, (3) build on the resilience of nature and local energy systems, (4) markets and corporations will lead and (5) renewable energy sources are the path forward. We find several under-examined perspectives on energy and society – one discourse that attempts to balance growth in the energy economy with environmental concern and another discourse that promotes the resilience of natural and local energy systems. We also find a proclivity towards science, ingenuity and technological innovation as a strategy to resolve contemporary challenges in the energy sector. This study helps to elaborate energy policy conversations beyond the common environment versus economy tropes. The study also reveals opportunities to forge common ground and mutual understanding on complex debates.

Can Distrust Enhance Public Engagement? Insights From a National Survey on Energy Issues in Canada

ABSTRACT Research examining the relationship between trust, public engagement, and natural resource management asserts that trust fosters positive behavior and enhanced cooperation. Yet some scholars are finding that certain kinds of distrust are helpful in achieving democratic outcomes by providing would-be participants with the motivation to engage in issues of public concern. This article seeks to clarify this apparent disjuncture in the trust literature by examining the multidimensional nature of trust as it relates to public engagement on energy-related issues in Canada. Based on a national online survey (n = 3000) we use a binary probit model to explore the connections between trust, knowledge, and public engagement. About 70% of respondents had participated in at least one form of public engagement over the last 3 years. Drawing on a two-dimensional conception of trust, we find that general trust on its own is not positively linked to public engagement. A combination of general trust and skepticism, however, is positively associated with public engagement and confirms our hypothesis that at least some concern regarding credibility, bias, and vested interest can motivate public engagement. In this sense, trust is not uniformly good for public engagement. These results signal a need to further refine our assumptions about the relationship between public trust, public engagement and environmental governance.

A Tribute to William R. Freudenburg

This special section of Society & Natural Resources is intended to honor William R. (Bill) Freudenburg. Those who knew Bill, whom we lost to cancer at the end of 2010, know that there would be no better way to honor him than to publish a collection of works that was inspired by his scholarship. Bill had a tremendous influence on the field of natural resource and environmental sociology. While his career was cut short before he had turned 60, few in the field will surpass Bill’s productivity or creativity. Bill had an extremely inquisitive mind, tireless energy and enthusiasm for his craft, and a keen ability to draw insight and bring clarity out of seemingly jumbled and nonsensical data. Bill could spot the patterns. At a gathering in Santa Barbara in November 2010, a few dear friends and fans of Bill suggested that we organize some Freudenburg-inspired sessions at the International Symposium for Society and Resource Management in Madison, Wisconsin, in 2011. The hope was that those sessions would provide sufficient quality material that we could subsequently put together a special section of SNR from those presentations. The idea was to invite work that was informed by or inspired by Bill’s intellectual contributions to the field. The articles in this special section may appear to be all over the map and in a sense they are, but that is because Bill cast his gaze widely. His work includes major contributions to the Boomtown literature, and to social impact assessment more broadly. He wrote quite famously about resource-dependent communities (oil, mining, and forestry), and about polluters and the social and institutional relations around the production of pollution. Bill wrote about both government and corporate accountability, or more accurately the lack of it. His work touched on risk and disasters, both natural and unnatural, and anticipating a popular current trend, he often argued that so-called ‘‘natural’’ disasters have important human causal factors. Another of Bill’s special qualities is that he used and his work reflected and embodied the full breadth of sociological wisdom that came before him. He was