Thomas Oakland

An Evaluation of the Dyslexia Training Program A Multisensory Method for Promoting Reading in Students with Reading Disabilities

The development of reading and spelling skills in students with dyslexia, by definition, is delayed and often remains delayed despite years of instruction. Three qualities are thought to facilitate reading development in these children: the provision of a highly structured phonetic-instruction training program with heavy emphasis on the alphabetic system, drill and repetition to compensate for short-term verbal memory deficits, and multisensory methods to promote nonlanguage mental representations. The Dyslexia Training Program, a remedial reading program derived from Orton-Gillingham methods, embodies these qualities. Following their 2-year program, students displaying dyslexia demonstrated significantly higher reading recognition and comprehension compared with a control group. The two groups did not differ in spelling. In addition, the degree of improvement in reading demonstrated by students who received the Dyslexia Training Program by videotape and by those who received it live from instructors did not differ.

A Survey of School Psychology in Developed and Developing Countries

Professionals with expertise in school psychology, particularly with regard to the preparation of school psychologists, responded to a questionnaire examining the status of school psychology in fifty-four developed and developing countries. Substantive findings are discussed relating to six issues: functions of school psychologists, their characteristics, their preparation, regulation of services, importance of research and predicted future trends. School psychology is a growing profession. Similar conceptions of the roles and functions of school psychologists are held throughout the world. School psychology is regulated by four sectors: universities and federal agencies together with professional associations of psychology and education. Discrepancies exist in the perceived need for research and the roles accorded to research participation among school psychologists. Expectations for more professionalism within school psychology are higher in the more developed countries. Substantial differences often exist between high- and low-GNP countries. Recommendations for the future development of the field are offered.

Factors Influencing Teachers' and Psychologists' Recommendations Regarding Special Class Placement.

Abstract This study investigated the recommendations for special services made by 76 teachers and 53 psychologists for children characterized through 106 case studies with reference to 16 variables. The results indicated that both groups consider IQ, test achievement, class achievement, and home-related anxiety important in making recommendations, with IQ and test achievement weighted more heavily by psychologists than by teachers. SES is important only to psychologists, while adaptive behavior and self-concept are important only to teachers. Recommendations by both groups were not influenced by childrens ethnicity, language, home values, school-related anxiety, classroom manageability, and interpersonal relationships.

Language, Reading, and Readability Formulas: Implications for Developing and Adapting Tests

Issues pertaining to language and reading while developing and adapting tests are examined. Strengths and limitations associated with the use of readability formulas are discussed. Their use should be confined to paragraphs and longer passages, not items. Readability methods that consider both quantitative and qualitative variables and are performed by seasoned professionals are recommended. Research examining the use of readability formulas applied to test content is needed.

Estimated Prevalence of Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms Among College Freshmen Gender, Race, and Rater Effects

Group differences and prevalence rates for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms in a matched sample of college freshmen (n = 956) and their parents (n = 956) were investigated for gender and race (African American and Caucasian) effects using current self-report and retrospective parent-report ratings. On self-report, compared to female students, male students displayed higher mean scores on subscales and lower rates for reporting symptom totals beyond DSM—IV thresholds for the three subtypes of ADHD. Mean differences in ADHD symptoms were not apparent for race. However, African American students displayed higher rates for reporting symptom totals beyond DSM—IV thresholds for all subtypes. On retrospective parent report, male students and Caucasian students displayed higher mean scores on all scales and higher rates for reporting symptom totals beyond DSM—IV thresholds for all subtypes. Prevalence rates varied by gender and race on self-report and parent report. Prevalence was examined based on combined data of self-report and parent report and using age-adjusted cutoff criteria. Findings and implications are discussed.

The Effects of Test-Wiseness Materials on Standardized Test Performance of Preschool Disadvantaged Children.

Abstract Evidence was sought to test the claim that many young children lack the abilities prerequisite to taking standardized tests and, therefore, perform poorly. After identifying a number of prerequisite abilities, curricular materials were designed and implemented in an effort to increase the test-wiseness of children unfamiliar with standardized tests. Children from Head Start classes worked with the materials twice a week for six weeks. The experimental group improved significantly on Total Score and the Matching subtest of the Metropolitan Readiness Test administered immediately after completing the instruction. However, group differences, when measured four months later, were not significant.

Global and Regional Perspectives on Testing Children and Youth: An Empirical Study

Abstract The results of an international survey of test use in 44 countries are reported. Data are presented and discussed for six groupings: highly industrialised, less industrialised Western, developing Third World, socialist, Middle East, and least developed nations. A total of 740 tests were identified. A number of similarities exist among the six groupings in their test use. Intelligence tests are most commonly used followed by personality and achievement tests. Important differences also exist. For example, the developing Third World and Middle East nations use more group than individually administered tests and fewer achievement tests. Many tests lack reliability and validity studies and norms. Additional tests are needed to assess achievement, intelligence, social development, personality, and vocational interests and aptitudes. Tests are especially needed for children and youth who are learning disabled, mentally retarded, and slow learners. Problems created by these conditions and implications o...

Assessment of Leadership in Children, Youth and Adults.

Current theories of leadership are reviewed. Eleven leadership measures, six for children and youth and five for adults, are reviewed in the context of these theories and with psychometric standards for test use. In general, the measures are normed inadequately and lack information about reliability and validity. The use of short subscales embedded within other scales, which themselves often are inadequate, should be avoided. Currently, we lack the assessment technology to measure leadership adequately in children and youth. Leadership measures for adults are more promising, especially the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire, the Supervisory Behavior Description Questionnaire, and the Campbell Leadership Index.

Observing child behavior during testing: Constructs, validity, and situational generality

Abstract Observing behavior during test sessions is a fundamental clinical activity. Test-session observations help judge the impact of childrens behavior on the quality of test scores. A related purpose of such observation is to identify behavioral characteristics that generalize to other contexts. Unfortunately, these benefits of test-session observation typically are assumed in that they rarely have been documented empirically. The performance of children between the ages of 6 and 14 (N=311) was recorded by summative ratings of test-session behavior. These objective ratings were used first to predict IQs obtained within test sessions. Second, they were used to predict performance evaluated according to adaptive behavior and achievement criteria obtained outside the test situation. Test-session ratings were subjected to principal components analyses. Thereafter, the resultant test-behavior factors were submitted to canonical variate analyses, with combinations of IQ adaptive behavior, and achievement used as criterion data sets. Statistical significance was achieved in each multivariate comparison. Subsequent canonical redundancy was appreciable for the IQ criterion (41.6%). Nevertheless, redundancy was equivocal for the combined adaptive-behavior and achievement criterion (3.5%). The results indicate that test-session observations are critical as cross-checks of the validity of test scores obtained during test sessions. However, test-session observations provide considerably less insight into childrens adaptation and achievement outside the test-session environment.

Criterion-related bias with the guide to the assessment of test-session behavior for the WISC-III and WIAT: Possible race/ethnicity, gender, and SES effects

Abstract Using the Guide to the Assessment of Test-Session Behavior for the WISC-III and WIAT (GATSB), Anglo examiners recorded test observations for 969 children between the ages of 6 and 16 years. The children came from the standardization and validity-study samples of GATSB ratings completed with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WISC-III) (Wechsler, 1991). The sample differed by race (Anglo, black, Latino), socioeconomic status (SES) (high, middle, low), and gender. GATSB ratings and WISC-III Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQs were compared. Correlations between the GATSB and WISC-III were generally moderate (average r = -.27). Children who exhibited higher levels of avoidance, inattentiveness, and uncooperative behaviors while being tested tended to exhibit lower WISC-III scores. This pattern held true for Anglos, blacks, and Latinos; for girls and boys; and for those from high-, middle-, and low-SES homes. Evidence was generally absent that Anglo examiners display bias in black-Anglo, gender, or SES comparisons. However, consistent differences were noted between Latino and Anglo children. Examiners tended to rate Latinos as displaying better test behaviors than Anglos when childrens IQs were below average, but comparable when IQs were average and above. Thus, the GATSB generally displayed similar intrasession validities for children who differ by race/ethnicity, gender, and SES.