Joseph J. Glutting

ADHD and Achievement Meta-Analysis of the Child, Adolescent, and Adult Literatures and a Concomitant Study With College Students

This article presents results from two interrelated studies. The first study conducted a meta-analysis of the published literature since 1990 to determine the magnitude of achievement problems associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Effect sizes were significantly different between participants with and without ADHD (sample weighted r = .32, sample weighted d = . 71; p = .001). Effects were also examined according to the moderators of age, gender, achievement domain (reading, math, spelling), measurement method (standardized tests vs. grades, parent/teacher ratings, etc.), sample type (clinical vs. nonclinical), and system used to identify ADHD (DSM-III-R vs. DSM-IV). Significant differences emerged from the moderator comparisons. The second study, using averaged effect sizes from the first study as a baseline for comparison, investigated achievement levels for an understudied age group with ADHD, namely, college students. Unlike previous studies at the college level, the sample incorporated both student and parent ratings (N = 380 dyads). The results were comparable to outcomes from the meta-analysis for college students and adults. Analyses demonstrated modest (R = .21) but meaningful predictive validity across 1 year to end-of-first-year grades. However, unlike earlier studies with children and adolescents, student ratings were as predictive as parent ratings. Findings are discussed in terms of the impact of moderator variables on ADHD and achievement.

Just Say No to Subtest Analysis: A Critique on Wechsler Theory and Practice

Wechslers beliefs about the nature of human intelligence and its measurement have profoundly influenced contemporary theory and practice. He encouraged interpretations not only of more global intellective indices, such as IQ but encouraged as well the search for pathognomonic meaning in patterns of underlying, more specific, subtest scores. This article examines the evidence that concerns the interpretation of Wechsler and similar tests as measures of specific rather than global ability. Popular practices that involve use of subtests for both intraindividual and interindividual assessment are viewed in the light of empirical research, and recommendations are presented.

ADHD and college students: Exploratory and confirmatory factor structures with student and parent data

Exploratory factor analyses (EFAs) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were used to investigate the structure of the Student Report Inventory (SRI) and Parent Report Inventory (PRI) of the College Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Response Evaluation. The sample was composed of 1,080 college students and their parents and was stratified by ethnicity, gender, ability level, age, grade, region of residence, and psychoeducational classification status. Results varied according to the information source (self-report vs. parent). EFA uncovered and CFA confirmed 3 distinct and reliable dimensions for student reports: Inattention, Hyperactivity, and Impulsivity. By contrast, EFA and CFA uncovered a reliable 2-dimension structure for the parent-report data. Factor structures replicated across genders (3 factors for the SRI, and 2 factors for the PRI). Results are discussed in terms of the divergence of structures.

Distinctions Without a Difference The Utility of Observed Versus Latent Factors From the WISC-IV in Estimating Reading and Math Achievement on the WIAT-II

This study employed observed factor index scores as well as latent ability constructs from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition (WISC-IV; Wechsler, 2003) in estimating reading and mathematics achievement on the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test—Second Edition (WIAT-II; Wechsler, 2002). Participants were the nationally stratified linking sample (N = 498) of the WISC-IV and WIAT-II. Observed scores from the WISC-IV were analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Although the factor index scores provided a statistically significant increment over the Full Scale IQ, the size of the improvement was too small to be of clinical utility. Observed WISC-IV subtest scores were also subjected to structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses. Subtest scores from the WISC-IV were fit to a general factor (g) and four ability constructs corresponding to factor indexes from the WISC-IV (Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed). For both reading and mathematics, only g (.55 and .77, respectively) and Verbal Comprehension (.37 and .17, respectively) were significant influences. Thus, when using observed scores to predict reading and mathematics achievement, it may only be necessary to consider the Full Scale IQ. In contrast, both g and Verbal Comprehension may be required for explanatory research.

Illusions of Meaning in the Ipsative Assessment of Children's Ability

In this study, we analyze the relative efficacy of normative and ipsative measures for the study of intra- and interindividual differences in child ability. With the use of representative data sets, including the WISC-R national standardization sample, purely ipsatized (or deviational ipsative) subtest scores were contrasted with conventional norm-based scores in terms of the evidential and consequential bases for validity. Internal and external evidence for validity was assessed for relative convergence of ability attributes, short- and long-term stability, and predictive efficiency. Comparative utility of each type of measure was explored for theoretical relevance, applicability in measurement work, and assessment of individualized intervention outcomes. Ipsative ability measures were found to be uniformly inferior to their normative counterparts, with ipsative measures conveying no uniquely useful information and otherwise impeding the versatility of assessment.

Wide Range Achievement Test 3 (wrat3)

The Wide Range Achievement Test 3 (wrat3) is the most recent edition in a series of instruments which measure codes necessary to learn the basic skills of reading, spelling, and arithmetic. These codes—reading decoding, written encoding, and math computation—are fundamental building blocks of academic achievement, and the assessment of these skills is a vital component of psychological evaluations conducted in clinical and school settings. The wrat3 and its predecessors, the Wide Range Achievement Test (wrat) and the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (wrat-r), have been among the most widely used instruments of psychological measurement for over forty years. As but one example, the wrat tests have been used extensively in the investigation of learning disabilities and neurological impairments in children and adults.

Incremental efficacy of WISC-III factor scores in predicting achievement : What do they tell us ?

Four factors underlie the Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) on the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III; D. Wechsler, 1991). Scores from these factors possess greater reliability than individual subtest scores, and some argue that factor scores relate to important phenomena of educational and clinical interest, such as academic achievement and classification status. However, the predictive efficacy of factor scores from the WISC-III relative to the Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) has not been clearly established. This study examined the incremental validity of factor scores from the WISC-III in predicting achievement on the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT; Psychological Corporation, 1992). Two groups were evaluated: a nationally representative nonreferred sample (n = 283), and a sample of children referred for evaluation (n = 636). Results indicate that while the factors provide a statistically significant increment, the size of this improvement is generally too small to be of clinical significance for either group. In terms of parsimony and efficiency, the FSIQ is the best predictor of different achievement criteria as measured by the WIAT.

A Number Sense Intervention for Low-Income Kindergartners at Risk for Mathematics Difficulties

Early number sense is a strong predictor of later success in school mathematics. A disproportionate number of children from low-income families come to first grade with weak number competencies, leaving them at risk for a cycle of failure. The present study examined the effects of an 8-week number sense intervention to develop number competencies of low-income kindergartners (N = 121). The intervention purposefully targeted whole number concepts related to counting, comparing, and manipulating sets. Children were randomly assigned to either a number sense intervention or a business as usual contrast group. The intervention was carried out in small-group, 30-min sessions, 3 days per week, for a total of 24 sessions. Controlling for number sense at pretest, the intervention group made meaningful gains relative to the control group at immediate as well delayed posttest on a measure of early numeracy. Intervention children also performed better than controls on a standardized test of mathematics calculation at immediate posttest.

Estimated Prevalence of Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms Among College Freshmen Gender, Race, and Rater Effects

Group differences and prevalence rates for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms in a matched sample of college freshmen (n = 956) and their parents (n = 956) were investigated for gender and race (African American and Caucasian) effects using current self-report and retrospective parent-report ratings. On self-report, compared to female students, male students displayed higher mean scores on subscales and lower rates for reporting symptom totals beyond DSM—IV thresholds for the three subtypes of ADHD. Mean differences in ADHD symptoms were not apparent for race. However, African American students displayed higher rates for reporting symptom totals beyond DSM—IV thresholds for all subtypes. On retrospective parent report, male students and Caucasian students displayed higher mean scores on all scales and higher rates for reporting symptom totals beyond DSM—IV thresholds for all subtypes. Prevalence rates varied by gender and race on self-report and parent report. Prevalence was examined based on combined data of self-report and parent report and using age-adjusted cutoff criteria. Findings and implications are discussed.

Reading Component Skills of Learners in Adult Basic Education

The purposes of this study were to investigate the reliability and construct validity of measures of reading component skills with a sample of adult basic education (ABE) learners, including both native and nonnative English speakers, and to describe the performance of those learners on the measures. Investigation of measures of reading components is needed because available measures were neither developed for nor normed on ABE populations or with nonnative speakers of English. The study included 486 students, 334 born or educated in the United States (native) and 152 not born or educated in the United States (nonnative) but who spoke English well enough to participate in English reading classes. All students had scores on 11 measures covering five constructs: decoding, word recognition, spelling, fluency, and comprehension. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test three models: a two-factor model with print and meaning factors; a three-factor model that separated out a fluency factor; and a five-factor model based on the hypothesized constructs. The five-factor model fit best. In addition, the CFA model fit both native and nonnative populations equally well without modification, showing that the tests measure the same constructs with the same accuracy for both groups. Group comparisons found no difference between the native and nonnative samples on word recognition, but the native sample scored higher on fluency and comprehension and lower on decoding than did the nonnative sample. Students with self-reported learning disabilities scored lower on all reading components. Differences by age and gender were also analyzed.