Thomas R. Herzog

Assessing the restorative components of environments

We used a direct rating approach based on definitions of each construct to measure the four components of a restorative environment proposed by attention restoration theory (ART): being away, extent, fascination, and compatibility. We used the same approach to measure two criterion variables, perceived restorative potential (PRP) of a setting and preference for the setting, as well as four additional predictor variables (openness, visual access, movement ease, and setting care). Each participant rated 70 settings, 35 each from urban and natural environments, for only one of the variables. Mean ratings were higher for the natural than the urban settings for both criterion variables and all four restorative components, with differences significant in all cases except for fascination. Correlations across settings generally followed the predictions of ART, but collinearity appeared among several sets of variables, most notably being away and setting category, PRP and preference, and extent and fascination. Despite these problems, regression analysis showed that being away and compatibility predicted PRP and that the pattern of prediction for PRP and preference was somewhat different.

A cognitive analysis of preference for waterscapes

Abstract Preferences for waterscapes were studied as a function of content categories, viewing time and six predictor variables: spaciousness, texture, coherence, complexity, mystery, and identifiability. A non-metric factor analysis of the preference ratings for the longest viewing-time condition yielded four dimensions: (1) Mountain Waterscapes, (2) Swampy Areas, (3) Rivers, Lakes, and Ponds, and (4) Large Bodies of Water. Mountain Waterscapes was the most preferred category and Swampy Areas by far the least preferred. The Mountain Waterscapes category was characterized by rough surface textures, while within the category spaciousness, coherence, and mystery were positive predictors of preference. The Swampy Areas category was low in spaciousness; within the category, coherence was a positive predictor of preference. With longer viewing times, Mountain Waterscapes were liked better but Swampy Areas were liked less. The results indicate that type of waterscape, viewing time and the predictor variables all play a role in determining preference. Some broad implications of these findings for environmental planners were suggested.

Cultural and Developmental Comparisons of Landscape Perceptions and Preferences

The authors compared several Australian subgroups and American college students on their preferences for Australian natural landscapes. Preference correlations across groups were generally high, with the correlations for Australian adults somewhat lower. Factor analysis yielded six perceptual categories: Vegetation, Open Smooth, Open Coarse, Rivers, Agrarian, and Structures. Both the Australian and American samples liked Rivers best and the Open categories least. Only the Australians included willow trees in the Agrarian category. The Australians liked the settings overall better than the Americans. Among the Australians, primary students liked the settings most, secondary students least; aboriginal college students liked the settings better than other college groups, but they disliked the Structures category; and DENR (Department of Environmental and Natural Resources) staff members liked the settings better than other Australian adults but, unlike other adults, did not like willows better than nonwillow settings. Cultural and evolutionary reasons for the complex pattern of results were explored.

The Prediction of Preference for Familiar Urban Places

The experience of the urban environment was studied in terms of how it is categorized, what peoples preferences are, and the extent to which complexity and familiarity can account for these preferences. College students rated urban scenes on these three variables under three methods of scene presentation: Slides, Label (name and location), and Imagery (Label with instructions to imagine the scene). A nonmetric factor analysis of the preference ratings for the Slide condition yielded five urban dimensions: Cultural, Contemporary, Commercial, Entertainment, and Campus. The pattern of results was virtually identical across the three presentation conditions. The five urban dimensions differed significantly in terms of each of the rating scales. Both complexity and familiarity were factors in accounting for the obtained preferences, pointing to the need for examining a variety of predictor variables. At the same time, the fact that the pattern of relationships was quite different across the content dimensions points to the need for caution in interpreting results based on relatively global prediction of preference.

The prediction of preference for unfamiliar urban places

Preferences for unfamiliar urban environments were studied as a function of urban categories, viewing time, and four predictor variables: complexity, coherence, identifiability, and mystery. A nonmetric factor analysis of the preference ratings for the longest viewing-time condition yielded five dimensions: Contemporary Life, Alley/Factory, Urban Nature, Unusual Architecture, and Older Buildings. The five categories differed significantly in preference, with Urban Nature by far the most preferred and Alley/Factory distinctly disliked. The combination of low coherence and high complexity characterizes the least liked Alley/Factory category, while the role of mystery in the urban setting is highlighted by the most preferred Urban Nature category. The results point to various ways in which the urban environment could be more responsive to peoples preferences.

Preference and Perceived Danger in Field/Forest Settings

The authors investigated preference, perceived danger, and fear for a sample of 70 field/forest settings. Predictor variables included perception-based variables (visual access, penetration, movement ease), information-based variables (mystery, concealment, refuge), and variables thought to intervene between concealment and danger (entrapment, rearview concern). All variables were rated by independent groups. Danger and fear were strongly positively correlated for these settings, but preference and danger had a more modest negative correlation. Factor analysis of the strongly intercorrelated predictor variables yielded two factors, interpreted as Visibility and Locomotor Access. Both factors were positive predictors of preference and negative predictors of danger. Further analyses suggested feelings of entrapment could mediate the positive relation between concealment and danger and that after controlling for other indicators of visibility, mystery has a positive relation to preference. In general, the role of visual and locomotor access in accounting for preference or danger reactions is highlighted by these findings.

Tranquility and preference as affective qualities of natural environments

Abstract Independent groups rated 66 color slides of natural settings for the target variables tranquility and preference and for four descriptor variables. Tranquility and preference ratings were strongly correlated across all settings (r = 0.91). Nevertheless, it was possible to distinguish the two constructs both in terms of mean differences within specific categories of natural settings and in terms of their relationships with descriptor variables. Tranquility was rated higher than preference within the categories of Field-Forest, Large Bodies of Water, and Misty Mountains, while preference was rated higher in the category of Rushing Water. As predicted, ratings of focus (the extent to which the setting contains strong focal points) were more strongly correlated with preference ratings than with tranquility ratings. The same pattern held within all four of seven categories of natural settings in which tranquility and preference were not redundant (r ≤ 0·83). It appears that tranquility and preference are related but discriminable constructs with their discriminability more pronounced in some environmental categories than in others.

Contact With Nature, Sense of Humor, and Psychological Well-Being:

We administered a questionnaire measuring contact with nature, sense of humor, and psychological well-being. Factor analysis of the humor items yielded four factors: humor production, humor appreciation, coping humor, and humor tolerance. Factor analysis of 14 well-being measures yielded three factors: emotional well-being, personal development, and effective functioning. The best sense-of-humor predictor of the well-being measures and factors was humor appreciation. Regression models for each of the well-being factors as dependent variables with humor appreciation and contact with nature as independent variables showed that additive models with both predictors were appropriate for personal development and effective functioning and that a simple model with humor appreciation as the sole predictor was sufficient for emotional well-being. Secondary analyses suggested that contact with nature was the better predictor of effective functioning, whereas sense of humor was the better predictor of personal development.

The Role of Mystery in Perceived Danger and Environmental Preference

Mystery has been implicated as a positive contributor to both environmental preference and perceived danger/fear. We explored the relationships among mystery, danger, and preference as well as between them and two physical features of settings, openness and pathway curvature, in urban alleys and field/forest settings containing pathways. The major finding was that mystery was a positive predictor of both danger and preference even though the latter two variables were negatively related. Mystery, in turn, was positively related to pathway curvature and negatively related to openness. Setting category (alleys versus field/forest) was also a significant predictor of both danger (greater for alleys) and preference (greater for field/forest settings). Free-response data indicated that danger was a more common reaction than mystery for alleys, but the reverse was true for field/forest settings. The results highlight the paradoxical role that variables such as mystery can play in contributing to affective response, depending on the context in which the variables operate.

Danger, Mystery, and Environmental Preference

The possibility of a connection among high mystery, perceived danger, and depressed preference for certain categories of environments was investigated. Past research had suggested that urban alleys and narrow canyons would exhibit such a pattern. Comparison categories, chosen to be high in mystery and low in perceived danger, were urban and nonurban nature (that is, field-and-forest settings within urban or nonurban environments), respectively. Preference ratings were obtained for settings from each of the four categories. The settings were also rated by independent raters for six predictor variables: mystery, physical danger, social danger, shadow, nature, and vertical depth. The major findings were that danger was a negative predictor of preference and mystery was a positive predictor. There was no evidence that high mystery was involved in depressed preference ratings for any of the environmental categories investigated. The distinction between physical and social danger proved useful, with only social danger related (negatively) to preference.