Timothy R. Konold

Distinctions Without a Difference The Utility of Observed Versus Latent Factors From the WISC-IV in Estimating Reading and Math Achievement on the WIAT-II

This study employed observed factor index scores as well as latent ability constructs from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition (WISC-IV; Wechsler, 2003) in estimating reading and mathematics achievement on the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test—Second Edition (WIAT-II; Wechsler, 2002). Participants were the nationally stratified linking sample (N = 498) of the WISC-IV and WIAT-II. Observed scores from the WISC-IV were analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Although the factor index scores provided a statistically significant increment over the Full Scale IQ, the size of the improvement was too small to be of clinical utility. Observed WISC-IV subtest scores were also subjected to structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses. Subtest scores from the WISC-IV were fit to a general factor (g) and four ability constructs corresponding to factor indexes from the WISC-IV (Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed). For both reading and mathematics, only g (.55 and .77, respectively) and Verbal Comprehension (.37 and .17, respectively) were significant influences. Thus, when using observed scores to predict reading and mathematics achievement, it may only be necessary to consider the Full Scale IQ. In contrast, both g and Verbal Comprehension may be required for explanatory research.

Empirically-Derived, Person-Oriented Patterns of School Readiness in Typically-Developing Children: Description and Prediction to First-Grade Achievement

School readiness assessment is a prominent feature of early childhood education. Because the construct of readiness is multifaceted, we examined childrens patterns on multiple indicators previously found to be both theoretically and empirically linked to school readiness: social skill, interactions with parents, problem behavior, and performance on tests of cognition and attention. Multistage cluster analysis with independent replications was used to empirically identify normative profiles in a sample of 964 typically developing 54-month-old children. This procedure considered how the aforementioned indicators operate in concert by accounting for the nonlinear multivariate relations among them. Results supported six common (or core) profile types that satisfied all formal heuristic and statistical criteria, including complete coverage, satisfactory within-type homogeneity, between-type dissimilarity, and replicability. Resulting profiles suggest that cognitive process and self regulation develop somewhat independently, resulting in profiles that reveal both linkage and independence of these areas of development. A summary of the defining characteristics for each profile is provided. In addition, the performance of children comprising different profiles was investigated on three concurrent achievement measures to further substantiate the external validity of the resulting configurations. Because readiness connotes a link to the future, predictive validity was examined by evaluating differences between profile types on three achievement measures collected in first grade. Results are discussed in the context of a compensatory hypothesis, one which acknowledges that there is more than one route to successful, or at least adequate, educational outcome among typically developing children.

Parenting alliance: a multifactor perspective.

The Parenting Alliance Measure (PAM) provides an operational representation of Weissman and Cohens theory of parenting that has both clinical and research applications. The PAM is a 20-item, self-report instrument that measures the strength of the perceived alliance between parents of children ages 1 to 19 years. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine whether the PAM measures the same constructs for mothers and fathers. In addition, a formal comparison between a one- and two-factor solution was conducted, and the invariance of parameter estimates for the preferred model was tested for mothers and fathers. Results indicated that the PAM measures the same dimensions for these two groups. A formal comparison between the one- and two-factor solutions favored the less parsimonious two-factor model. At the same time, the relationship between these constructs was sufficiently high to warrant interpretation of an overall parenting alliance score. Accordingly, results from the current investigation support two levels of interpretation on the PAM. Normative raw score conversions to percentile and standardized T scores are provided.

Reading Component Skills of Learners in Adult Basic Education

The purposes of this study were to investigate the reliability and construct validity of measures of reading component skills with a sample of adult basic education (ABE) learners, including both native and nonnative English speakers, and to describe the performance of those learners on the measures. Investigation of measures of reading components is needed because available measures were neither developed for nor normed on ABE populations or with nonnative speakers of English. The study included 486 students, 334 born or educated in the United States (native) and 152 not born or educated in the United States (nonnative) but who spoke English well enough to participate in English reading classes. All students had scores on 11 measures covering five constructs: decoding, word recognition, spelling, fluency, and comprehension. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test three models: a two-factor model with print and meaning factors; a three-factor model that separated out a fluency factor; and a five-factor model based on the hypothesized constructs. The five-factor model fit best. In addition, the CFA model fit both native and nonnative populations equally well without modification, showing that the tests measure the same constructs with the same accuracy for both groups. Group comparisons found no difference between the native and nonnative samples on word recognition, but the native sample scored higher on fluency and comprehension and lower on decoding than did the nonnative sample. Students with self-reported learning disabilities scored lower on all reading components. Differences by age and gender were also analyzed.

Structure and Diagnostic Benefits of a Normative Subtest Taxonomy Developed from the WISC-III Standardization Sample

Abstract The structure and composition of profile types most representative of the 2,200 children (6 years 0 months to 16 years 11 months) comprising the normative sample for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Third Edition (WISC-III) are identified. Profiles from the 10 mandatory WISC-III subtests are sorted according to similar shape and level using multistage cluster analysis with independent replications. The final solution of eight most common (or core) profile types fulfills all formal heuristic and statistical criteria, including complete coverage, satisfactory within-type homogeneity, between-type dissimilarity, and replicability. Profile types are described according to population prevalence, ability level, subtest configuration; and each type is examined for membership trends by child demography, family characteristics, and unusual IQ discrepancies. Two methods are given for determining the relative uniqueness of WISC-III profile patterns in future research and clinical work. The article concludes with a case example using the method recommended for “everyday” decision making.

Multilevel Multi-Informant Structure of the Authoritative School Climate Survey.

The Authoritative School Climate Survey was designed to provide schools with a brief assessment of 2 key characteristics of school climate--disciplinary structure and student support--that are hypothesized to influence 2 important school climate outcomes--student engagement and prevalence of teasing and bullying in school. The factor structure of these 4 constructs was examined with exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses in a statewide sample of 39,364 students (Grades 7 and 8) attending 423 schools. Notably, the analyses used a multilevel structural approach to model the nesting of students in schools for purposes of evaluating factor structure, demonstrating convergent and concurrent validity and gauging the structural invariance of concurrent validity coefficients across gender. These findings provide schools with a core group of school climate measures guided by authoritative discipline theory.

Measuring Problem Behaviors in Young Children.

Despite difficulties in measuring problem behaviors in toddlers and preschoolers, there is increased interest in the diagnosis and treatment of emotional and behavioral disorders in young children. One of the primary methods for assessing behavior problems involves having parents and other caretakers complete standardized behavior checklists. The Child Behavior Checklist/1½–5 (CBCL/1½–5; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000) is commonly used to obtain parents’ ratings of the problem behaviors of young children. This study examined whether the items located on the CBCL/1½–5 provide reasonable indicators of the seven first-order behavioral dimensions purportedly measured by this instrument in a national sample of 2-year-old typically developing children. In addition, multigroup methods of confirmatory factor analysis were used to evaluate the invariance of these item loadings across gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Results support the presence of six factors that were reasonably invariant for boys and girls. Ethnic and socioeconomic group comparisons failed to reveal factorial invariance on all dimensions. These results are discussed in light of issues related to assessment, screening, and diagnosis of problem behavior in young children.

Factor Replication of the WISC-III in Three Independent Samples of Children Receiving Special Education

This study examined the first-order factor structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III; Wechsler, 1991) on three samples of children previously diagnosed with a handicapping condition. Five alternative factor models were compared through confirmatory factor analysis. Previous factor analytic studies that focused on the WISC-IIIs four-factor solution employed all 13 subtests in their analyses, despite the fact that only 12 subtests are combined during clinical evaluations to obtain scores on the four factors. This study investigated the WISC-III factor structure by considering the 12 subtests that actually combine to yield index scores on the dimensions of Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, Processing Speed, and Freedom from Distractibility. Results support a four-factor solution for children with disabilities.

Measuring Early Literacy Skills: A Latent Variable Investigation of the Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening for Preschool.

Psychometric properties of the Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening for Preschool (PALSPreK) instrument were investigated in a sample of 4,518 children. PALS-PreK figures prominently in state and federal early literacy programs as an assessment of emergent literacy skills in preschool-aged children. Exploratory Factor Analysis, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), and multigroup CFA were employed to evaluate the underlying factor structure and determine whether the identified structure was invariant across boys and girls. Results suggest that PALSPreK effectively measures the most important precursors to successful literacy acquisition: alphabet knowledge, phonological awareness, and print concepts, with generally the same degree of accuracy for boys and girls. These results, combined with the instructional transparency of the instrument, support the educational utility of PALS-PreK as a tool for guiding instruction in preschool literacy.

Factor Structure of the Social Skills Rating System Across Child Gender and Ethnicity

The Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) provides a multi-rater assessment of child social behaviors that influence the development of social competence and adaptive functioning. This study examined whether the items on the teacher version of the SSRS provide reasonable indicators of the three first-order social skills dimensions proposed by the authors. In addition, multi-group methods of confirmatory factor analysis were used to investigate the invariance of factor loadings across ethnicity and gender. Results support the presence of three factors that were invariant for White and non-White groups and nearly invariant for boys and girls.