Tobias Krämer

Isolation and assessment of the molecular and electronic structures of azo-anion-radical complexes of chromium and molybdenum. Experimental and theoretical characterization of complete electron-transfer series.

The reaction of 3 equiv of the ligand 2-[(2-chlorophenyl)azo]pyridine (L(a)) or 2-[(4-chlorophenyl)azo]pyridine (L(b)) with 1 equiv of Cr(CO)(6) or Mo(CO)(6) in boiling n-octane afforded [Cr(L(a/b))(3)](0) (1a and 1b) and [Mo(L(a/b))(3)](0) (2a and 2b). The chemical oxidation reaction of these neutral complexes with I(2) in CH(2)Cl(2) provided access to air-stable one-electron-oxidized species as their triiodide (I(3)(-)) salts. The electronic structures of chromium and molybdenum centers coordinated by the three redox noninnocent ligands L(a/b) along with their redox partners have been elucidated by using a host of physical methods: X-ray crystallography, magnetic susceptibility measurements, nuclear magnetic resonance, cyclic voltammetry, absorption spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, and density functional theory. The four representative complexes, 1a, [1a]I(3), 2a, and [2a]I(3), have been characterized by X-ray crystallography. The results indicate a predominant azo-anion-radical description of the ligands in the neutral chromium(III) species, [Cr(III)(L(•-))(3)], affording a singlet ground state through strong metal-ligand antiferromagnetic coupling. All of the electrochemical processes are ligand-based; i.e., the half-filled (t(2g))(3) set of the Cr(III) d(3) ion remains unchanged throughout. The description of the molybdenum analogue is less clear-cut because mixing between metal- and ligand-based orbitals is more significant. On the basis of variations in net spin densities and orbital compositions, we argue that the oxidation events are again primarily ligand-based, although the electron density at the molybdenum center is clearly more variable than that at the chromium center in the corresponding series [1a](+), 1a, and [1a](-).

A highly distorted open-shell endohedral Zintl cluster: [Mn@Pb12]3-.

Reaction of an ethylenediamine (en) solution of K(4)Pb(9) and 2,2,2-crypt (4,7,13,16,21,24-hexaoxa-1,10-diazabicyclo[8.8.8]hexacosane) with a tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution of Mn(3)(Mes)(6) (Mes = 2,4,6-trimethylphenyl) yielded the anionic cluster [Mn@Pb(12)](3-). This species was observed in the positive and negative ion-mode electrospray mass-spectra of the crude reaction mixture. The crystalline samples obtained from such solutions allowed us to confirm the composition of the sample as [K(2,2,2-crypt)](3)[Mn@Pb(12)]·1.5en (1). Because of numerous issues related to crystal sample quality and crystallographic disorder a high-quality crystal structure solution could not be obtained. Despite this, however, the data collected permit us to draw reasonable conclusions about the charge and connectivity of the [Mn@Pb(12)](3-) cluster anion. Crystals of 1 were further characterized by elemental analysis and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations on such a system reveal a highly distorted endohedral cluster anion, consistent with the structural distortions observed by single crystal X-ray diffraction. The cluster anions are considerably expanded compared to the 36-electron closed-shell analogue [Ni@Pb(12)](2-) and, moreover, exhibit significant low-symmetry distortions from the idealized icosahedral (I(h)) geometry that is characteristic of related endohedral clusters. Our computations indicate that there is substantial transfer of electron density from the formally Mn(-I) center to the low-lying vacant orbitals of the [Pb(12)](2-) cage.

Theoretical spectroscopy of the Ni(II) intermediate states in the catalytic cycle and the activation of [NiFe] hydrogenases.

[NiFe] hydrogenases catalyze the reversible oxidation of dihydrogen. The corresponding catalytic cycle involves a formidable number of redox states of the Ni‐Fe active site; these can be distinguished experimentally by the IR stretching frequencies of their CN and CO ligands coordinated to iron. These spectroscopic fingerprints serve as sensitive probes for the intrinsic electronic structure of the metal core and, indirectly, for the structural composition of the active site. In this study, density functional theory (DFT) was used to calculate vibrational frequencies, by focusing on the EPR‐silent intermediate states that contain divalent metal centers. By using the well‐characterized Ni‐C and Ni‐B states as references, we identified candidates for the Ni‐SIr, Ni‐SIa, and Ni‐R states by matching the predicted relative frequency shifts with experimental results. The Ni‐SIr and Ni‐SIa states feature a water molecule loosely bound to nickel and a formally vacant bridge. Both states are connected to each other through protonation equilibria; that is, in the Ni‐SIa state one of the terminal thiolates is protonated, whereas in Ni‐SIr this thiolate is unprotonated. For the reduced Ni‐R state two feasible models emerged: in one, H2 coordinates side‐on to nickel, and the second features a hydride bridge and a protonated thiolate. The Ni‐SU state remains elusive as no unequivocal correspondence between the experimental data and calculated frequencies of the models was found, thus indicating that a larger structural rearrangement might occur upon reduction from Ni‐A to Ni‐SU and that the bridging ligand might dissociate.

Solid-State Synthesis and Characterization of σ-Alkane Complexes, [Rh(L2)(η2,η2-C7H12)][BArF4] (L2 = Bidentate Chelating Phosphine)

The use of solid/gas and single-crystal to single-crystal synthetic routes is reported for the synthesis and characterization of a number of σ-alkane complexes: [Rh(R2P(CH2)nPR2)(η(2),η(2)-C7H12)][BAr(F)4]; R = Cy, n = 2; R = (i)Pr, n = 2,3; Ar = 3,5-C6H3(CF3)2. These norbornane adducts are formed by simple hydrogenation of the corresponding norbornadiene precursor in the solid state. For R = Cy (n = 2), the resulting complex is remarkably stable (months at 298 K), allowing for full characterization using single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The solid-state structure shows no disorder, and the structural metrics can be accurately determined, while the (1)H chemical shifts of the Rh···H-C motif can be determined using solid-state NMR spectroscopy. DFT calculations show that the bonding between the metal fragment and the alkane can be best characterized as a three-center, two-electron interaction, of which σCH → Rh donation is the major component. The other alkane complexes exhibit solid-state (31)P NMR data consistent with their formation, but they are now much less persistent at 298 K and ultimately give the corresponding zwitterions in which [BAr(F)4](-) coordinates and NBA is lost. The solid-state structures, as determined by X-ray crystallography, for all these [BAr(F)4](-) adducts are reported. DFT calculations suggest that the molecular zwitterions within these structures are all significantly more stable than their corresponding σ-alkane cations, suggesting that the solid-state motif has a strong influence on their observed relative stabilities.

Structural trends in ten-vertex endohedral clusters, M@E10 and the synthesis of a new member of the family, [Fe@Sn10]3−

The synthesis of a new endohedral ten-vertex Zintl ion cluster, [Fe@Sn10](3-), isoelectronic with [Fe@Ge10](3-), is reported. In an attempt to place this new cluster within the context of the known structural chemistry of the M@E10 family (M = transition metal, E = main group element), we have carried out a detailed electronic structure analysis of the different structural types: viz bicapped square antiprismatic ([Ni@Pb10](2-), [Zn@In10](8-)), tetra-capped trigonal prismatic ([Ni@In10](10-)) and the remarkable pentagonal prismatic [Fe@Ge10](3-) and [Co@Ge10](3-). We establish that the structural trends can be interpreted in terms of a continuum of effective electron counts at the E10 cage, ranging from electron deficient (<4n + 2) in [Ni@In10](10-) to highly electron rich (>4n + 2) in [Fe@Ge10](3-). The effective electron count differs from the total valence electron count in that it factors in the increasingly active role of the metal d electrons towards the left of the transition series. The preference for a pentagonal prismatic geometry in [Fe@Ge10](3-) emerges as a natural consequence of backbonding to the cage from four orthogonal 3d orbitals of the low-valent metal ion. Our calculations suggest that the new [Fe@Sn10](3-) cluster should also exhibit structural consequences of backbonding from the metal to the cage, albeit to a less extreme degree than in its Ge analogue. The global minimum lies on a very flat surface connecting D4d, C2v and C3v-symmetric minima, suggesting a very plastic structure that may be easily deformed by the surrounding crystal environment. If so, then this provides a new and quite distinct structural type for the M@E10 family.

Dioxygen activation by mixed-valent dirhodium complexes of redox non-innocent azoaromatic ligands

The isolation, structural chracterisation and electronic structure of a formally mixed-valent Rh(-I)-Rh(III) complex is described, along with its reaction with dioxygen leading to double arene hydroxylation of the coordinated ligands.

Inhibition of [FeFe]-hydrogenases by formaldehyde and wider mechanistic implications for biohydrogen activation.

Formaldehyde-a rapid and reversible inhibitor of hydrogen evolution by [FeFe]-hydrogenases-binds with a strong potential dependence that is almost complementary to that of CO. Whereas exogenous CO binds tightly to the oxidized state known as H(ox) but very weakly to a state two electrons more reduced, formaldehyde interacts most strongly with the latter. Formaldehyde thus intercepts increasingly reduced states of the catalytic cycle, and density functional theory calculations support the proposal that it reacts with the H-cluster directly, most likely targeting an otherwise elusive and highly reactive Fe-hydrido (Fe-H) intermediate.

A Rhodium–Pentane Sigma‐Alkane Complex: Characterization in the Solid State by Experimental and Computational Techniques

Abstract The pentane σ‐complex [Rh{Cy2P(CH2CH2)PCy2}(η2:η2‐C5H12)][BArF 4] is synthesized by a solid/gas single‐crystal to single‐crystal transformation by addition of H2 to a precursor 1,3‐pentadiene complex. Characterization by low temperature single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction (150 K) and SSNMR spectroscopy (158 K) reveals coordination through two Rh⋅⋅⋅H−C interactions in the 2,4‐positions of the linear alkane. Periodic DFT calculations and molecular dynamics on the structure in the solid state provide insight into the experimentally observed Rh⋅⋅⋅H−C interaction, the extended environment in the crystal lattice and a temperature‐dependent pentane rearrangement implicated by the SSNMR data.

Redox noninnocence in coordinated 2-(arylazo)pyridines: steric control of ligand-based redox processes in cobalt complexes.

A series of cobalt complexes of ligands based on the 2-(arylazo)pyridine architecture have been synthesized, and the precise structure and stoichiometry of the complexes depend critically on the identity of substituents in the 2, 4, and 6 positions of the phenyl ring. The 2-(arylazo)pyridine motif can support either Co(II) complexes with neutral ligands, Co(II)Cl2(L(a))2 (1), Co(II)Cl2(L(c))2 (3), [Co(II)Cl(L(b))2]2(PF6)2 (5[PF6]2), or Co(III) complexes of reduced 2-(arylazo)pyridine ligand radical anions, L(•-), Co(III)Cl(L(b•-))2 (2), Co(III)Cl(L(c•-))2 (4), and Co(III)Me(L(b•-))2 (6). All three members of the latter class are based on approximately trigonal-bipyramidal CoX(L(•-))2 architectures [L = 2-(arylazo)pyridine] with two azo nitrogen atoms and the X ligand (X = Cl or Me) in the equatorial plane and two pyridine nitrogen atoms occupying axial positions. Density functional theory suggests that the electronic structure of the Co(III) complexes is also dependent on the identity of X: the strong σ-donor methyl gives a low-spin (S = 0) configuration, while the σ/π-donor chloro gives an intermediate-spin (S = 1) local configuration. In certain cases, one-electron reduction of the Co(II)X2L2 complex leads to the formation of Co(III)X(L(•-))2; i.e., reduction of one ligand induces a further one-electron oxidation of the metal center with concomitant reduction of the second ligand.

Selective C–H Activation at a Molecular Rhodium Sigma-Alkane Complex by Solid/Gas Single-Crystal to Single-Crystal H/D Exchange

The controlled catalytic functionalization of alkanes via the activation of C-H bonds is a significant challenge. Although C-H activation by transition metal catalysts is often suggested to operate via intermediate σ-alkane complexes, such transient species are difficult to observe due to their instability in solution. This instability may be controlled by use of solid/gas synthetic techniques that enable the isolation of single-crystals of well-defined σ-alkane complexes. Here we show that, using this unique platform, selective alkane C-H activation occurs, as probed by H/D exchange using D2, and that five different isotopomers/isotopologues of the σ-alkane complex result, as characterized by single-crystal neutron diffraction studies for three examples. Low-energy fluxional processes associated with the σ-alkane ligand are identified using variable-temperature X-ray diffraction, solid-state NMR spectroscopy, and periodic DFT calculations. These observations connect σ-alkane complexes with their C-H activated products, and demonstrate that alkane-ligand mobility, and selective C-H activation, are possible when these processes occur in the constrained environment of the solid-state.