Tom Ratliffe

Encouraging Lifetime Physical Fitness

health-related benefits of physical activity are well known. Regular physical activity decreases the risk for health problems, such as coronary heart disease, hypertension, and obesity (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). Participation in physical activity and sport can promote social well-being, as well as physical and mental health, among children and adolescents (Roberts, 2001). Despite all these benefits of physical activity, students with disabilities are at risk for developing sedentary lifestyles (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). Further, students with mental retardation constitute the third largest disability group and are at risk for unique motor needs more so than peers without disabilities. Even though health-related concerns are a focus of educational and community leaders, many schools and districts lack direction in how to eliminate inactivity in students with mental retardation. This article attempts to provide some answers for educators who teach students with mental retardation. The article is based on original data collected on children with mental disability, teachers who work in public schools, and parents whose children rely on special education programs to take a role in facilitating lifetime physical activity skills (for background information, see box, “What Does the Literature Say”). For details about data collection and methodology, write to the authors. This article focuses on results and recommendations aimed at improving the physical activity habits in school-aged children with mental retardation.

Gender Stereotyping and the Influence of Race in Sport among Adolescents.

One of the most dreaded insults in sports is, “You throw like a girl,” because it epitomizes our society’s gender logic about physiological differences between men and women. Although physiological differences between the sexes exist, people label these abilities and behaviors as masculine or feminine as a result of social and cultural expectations. Thus, gender equates to the socially learned expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female (Andersen & Taylor, 2006). Gender socialization begins early when, traditionally, girls are instructed to be passive, submissive, and nurturing, whereas boys are taught to be aggressive, active, and autonomous (Birns, 1976). Gill (2000, 2002) emphasized that gender should be considered within the wider context of social diversity that includes analysis of other ideologies (e.g., race, social class). The sports environment provides a unique microcosm for the examination of both gender and race socialization (Coakley, 2007). Therefore, the purpose our study was to examine both the influence of gender and race among high school youth in classifying sport activities as masculine, feminine, or gender neutral. Engel (1994) and others (e.g., Birrell, 2000; Butler, 1990; Halberstam, 2001; hooks, 1990) have acknowledged that while sports are not naturally gendered, patriarchal societies impose definitions and expectations of masculinity and femininity upon individuals at an early age. Early research on women in sports was mostly atheoretical, focusing on psychological factors such as gender roles, traits, and role conflict (Birrell, 2000). Then, emerging feminist scholars (such as Birrell, Hall, Theberge, and Oglesby) began to recognize that sports were in fact gender-based activities, with value and power associated with masculine traits (Birrell, 2000). Critical feminist theorists argue that ideological changes are needed before gender equity in sports and society can exist. In every culture, men and women play different roles within the social organization or institution. Sport is a male-dominant institution that promotes traditional gender roles and advances male hegemony (Eitzen, 2005). Hegemony is the condition in which groups, in this case, men in sports, wield authority over other groups through imposition, manipulation, and consent. For centuries, sports have been a prominent hegemonic social institution (Kane & Disch, 1993). The growing number of female athletes and recognition of women’s sports challenge the hegemonic ideology of women as inferior to men (Sabo & Messner, 2001). These factors serve to determine the masculine and feminine images of behaviors that are appropriate to men and women (Metheny, 1965). Thus, we label certain sports as masculine or feminine based on “gender appropriateness” (Ostrow, Jones, and Spiker, 1981), which is determined by how much a particular sport requires female athletes to accept or challenge traditional definitions of femininity (Metheny, 1965). Consequently, sports participation is based on whether the activity characteristics are considered socially acceptable for one’s gender (Guillet, Sarrazon, & Fontayne, 2000). Despite challenges to male hegemony, stereotypes of “acceptable” and “unacceptable” sports by gender persist (Riemer & Visio, 2003). Gender Stereotyping and the Influence of Race in Sport Among Adolescents

Agreement in Body Fat Estimates Between a Hand-Held Bioelectrical Impedance Analyzer and Skinfold Thicknesses in African American and Caucasian Adolescents

The body mass index (BMI), or the ratio of weight in kilograms to the square of height in meters, is widely used to determine the presence or absence of overweight and obesity in adults (National Institutes of Health, 1998). In children and adolescents, a BMI between the 85th and 95th percentiles for age and gender is defined as at risk for overweight, whereas a BMI above the 95th percentile for age and gender is defined as overweight (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003). Over the past two decades, the prevalence of at risk for overweight and overweight youth has nearly doubled in the U.S. (Ogden, Flegal, Carroll, & Johnson, 2002). Some policy statements (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003) consider overweight to be synonymous with obesity. However, obesity is an excess of body fat, and obesity in youth has been linked with an increased risk of Type 2 diabetes (Goran, 2001), glucose intolerance, hyperlipidemia (Dietz, 1998), and hypertension (Baskin, Ahluwalia, & Resnicow, 2001). Although many consider BMI an acceptable clinical surrogate of body fatness, it does not differentiate between fat and fat-free tissues. Thus, children and adolescents with the same BMI may differ widely in body fat percentages. For instance, in a sample of 112 adolescent girls, 24 were at risk for an overweight BMI or had an overweight BMI, yet their body fat, as assessed by a four-component body density, total body water, and whole body bone mineral model, ranged from 16 to 42% (Wong, Stuff, Butte, O’Brien-Smith, & Ellis, 2000). In another study of 979 children and adolescents assessed by BMI and the three-component dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) model, 90% of girls but only 71% of boys with an overweight BMI also had a DXA-derived body fat percentage above the 95th percentile for age and gender (Ellis, Abrams, & Wong, 1999). Therefore, the presence of either an at risk for overweight BMI or an overweight BMI is no guarantee of excess body fat in an individual child or adolescent (Ellis et al., 1999; Wong et al., 2000). One low-cost alternative to BMI is assessing skinfold thickness to determine body composition in youth. Williams et al. (1992) used the sum of triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses to estimate body fat percentage in a sample of 3,320 Caucasian and African American youth ages 5–18 years. They reported that boys with body fat at or above 25% and girls with body fat at or above 30% were two to seven times as likely to have elevated blood pressures and adverse serum lipoprotein levels as those with lower body fat percentages (Williams et al., 1992). These standards, with an adjustment for girls to body fat at or above 32%, have been used for over a decade to identify individuals above the healthy fitness zone in the FITNESSGRAM® health-related test of youth fitness (Meredith & Welk, 2005). However, there are several limitations related to using skinfold Agreement in Body Fat Estimates Between a Hand-Held Bioelectrical Impedance Analyzer and Skinfold Thicknesses in African American and Caucasian Adolescents

Tips to Increase Girls’ Participation in Flag Football Units

Results from the School Health Policies and Programs Study of 2000 indicated that fl ag football is offered as a regular part of the physical education curriculum in 81 percent of schools nationwide. The same study revealed that 32.6 percent of schools offer football as an intramural or club activity for girls (Burgeson, Wechsler, Brener, Young, & Spain, 2001). Despite the apparent popularity of fl ag football as an activity in physical education class and football as an after-school offering for girls, studies related to gender stereotyping of sports have found overwhelming evidence indicating that football is perceived as a masculine activity among males and females in primary school, secondary school, and college (Kane & Snyder, 1989; Pellett & Harrison, 1992; Riemer & Visio, 2003). The perception of football as a masculine activity was fi rst researched by Metheny (1965) and refl ected the attitudes of college-age women in the early 1960s. Based on results from this study, Metheny was the fi rst to suggest a classifi cation system of acceptable and unacceptable sports for women and girls. Acceptable sports for women and girls were classifi ed as individual activities that emphasized aesthetics, were pleasing to watch, involved accuracy but not strength, and did not involve bodily contact. Unacceptable sports for women and girls were classifi ed as those sports involving bodily contact, strength, aggression, and face-toface competition. Flag football is an activity that can involve rough physical contact, aggression, strength, and face-to-face competition. When viewed according to Metheny’s model, fl ag football would be deemed unappealing for most females. Much has changed since the time of Metheny’s study, including the passage of Title IX, which opened the door to many sporting arenas once inaccessible to women and girls. As a result, studies indicate that sports once considered inappropriate for females have become acceptable and, in fact, in some cases very popular (Reimer & Visio, 2003). The two most notable examples are soccer and basketball. The shift in perception of these two sports can be clearly seen through the increased rate of early childhood participation, mainstream media coverage, and the popularity of the United States women’s soccer team, women’s collegiate basketball, and the Women’s National Basketball Association (Reimer & Visio, 2003). The same ideological shift in thinking has not occurred for the sport of football. Rees, Brandel-Bredenbeck, and Brettschneider (1991) found that the number one sport chosen as unsuitable for girls among adolescents in the United States was American football. Engel (1994) and Reimer and Visio (2003) found that girls continue to perceive football as a masculine activity. With these issues and information in mind, the authors recently conducted a series of studies focusing on the physical activity levels and attitudes of students participating in coeducational and single-gender physical education game-play settings (Hannon & Ratliffe, 2005; Hannon, Ratliffe, Holt, & Thorn, 2005). A common activity used in each study was fl ag football. Results from the studies showed that girls were less active than boys regardless of coed or single-gender settings during fl ag football game play. Data derived from observation of game play and post-unit focus-group discussions with female participants revealed that many girls were unaware of how to play the game, lacked appropriate skills, and were generally uninterested in the game. Therefore, with regard to fl ag football, knowledge and proper skill development seemed to play more of a role in the girls’ lack of interest than the perceived gender appropriateness of the activity. It is interesting to note that many girls indicated that fl ag football was more suited for boys, but when given the chance to play it, they stated that they enjoyed themselves. It is the authors’ opinion that if teachers use appropriate instructional strategies, girls can receive physical activity benefi ts from fl ag football, as well as develop an appreciation, understanding, and enjoyment of the game. The authors offer the following set of tips for use in physical education classes to increase girl’s interest in fl ag football and to facilitate the social acceptance of the game for girls.

Creating a Learning Environment: Class Management Strategies for Elementary PE Teachers

Abstract The authors faced the difficulties of establishing a learning environment when they took over a kindergarten through third grade physical education program.