James C. Hannon

Increasing preschoolers' physical activity intensities: An activity-friendly preschool playground intervention

OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to see if portable play equipment added to a preschool playground resulted in higher intensities of physical activity among 3-5-year-old children. METHODS Activity-friendly equipment was added to an outdoor preschool playground. Accelerometry-measured intensities of 15-s epochs of physical activity were tracked for 5 pre-intervention and 5 post-intervention days during outdoor play. Data were collected during fall 2005 in Salt Lake City for 64 preschoolers aged 3, 4, and 5 years. RESULTS After the intervention, both male and female 3- to 5-year-olds significantly decreased sedentary behavior and significantly increased light, moderate, and vigorous physical activity as measured by accelerometry. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest simple interventions, requiring little teacher training, can yield increases in healthy physical activity.

Physical activity levels of overweight and nonoverweight high school students during physical education classes.

BACKGROUND This study examined physical activity (PA) levels of overweight and nonoverweight African American and Caucasian students (n = 198) during game play in physical education classes. METHODS Body fat percentages (%BFs) were determined using the skinfold technique and Slaughter et al prediction equations. Girls were classified as overweight if their %BF was > or =32; boys were classified as overweight if their %BF was > or =25. PA was monitored using pedometers during flag football, ultimate Frisbee, and soccer game play. Three 2 (weight classification) x 2 (gender) x 2 (race) factorial analyses of variance were conducted. RESULTS Results indicated no significant difference in steps per minute between overweight and nonoverweight students regardless of game. Males were more active than females, and Caucasians were more active than African Americans. CONCLUSIONS The most important implication of the current study is that the overweight and nonoverweight students accumulated similar amounts of PA during physical education. This emphasizes the importance physical education plays in providing both overweight and nonoverweight students with opportunities for PA. For many students, it may be their only source of regular PA.

Effects of nutritional intervention on body weight and body composition of obese psychiatric patients taking olanzapine

OBJECTIVE Weight gain is an established side effect of atypical antipsychotics in patients with severe mental illness (SMI). Previous studies have shown positive effects of nutritional interventions in weight loss. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a nutritional intervention on the body weight and body composition of patients with SMI taking olanzapine in Greece. METHODS Eighty-two patients with SMI treated with olanzapine (22 men, 60 women) and 58 healthy controls (12 men, 46 women) were followed for 3 mo. All patients with SMI were obese, with an average body mass index of 33.12 +/- 0.74 kg/m(2) and body weight of 94.61 +/- 2.50 kg. A nutritional program was designed for each participant based on anthropometric characteristics, health profile, and dietary needs. Pre- and postintervention anthropometric and body composition measurements were performed. RESULTS Significant weight loss and fat loss were found in the healthy controls and patients with SMI from baseline to 3 mo (P < 0.05). However, the patients with SMI had a less significant decrease in waist circumference (P < 0.05) compared with healthy controls. The healthy male controls and male patients with SMI demonstrated greater decreases in body weight and waist circumference compared with female participants (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION Patients with SMI appear to respond effectively to a nutritional program demonstrating significant decreases in body weight and body composition despite the use of olanzapine. Because gender differences may exist in weight loss, it is possible that gender should be taken into account for a more appropriate treatment of obesity in this population.

The Effect of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program on Physical Activity and Health-Related Fitness in Children From Low-Income Families

BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) on physical activity and health-related fitness (HRF) in children from low-income families. METHODS Participants included 1390 children recruited from kindergarten through sixth grade (mean age = 8.4 ± 1.8 years). Physical activity measures were collected at baseline and at 6 weeks and 12 weeks after program implementation, and HRF measures were collected at baseline and at 12 weeks after program implementation. RESULTS There were significant but weak-to-moderate increases in step counts (mean difference = 603.1 steps, P < .001, d = 0.39) and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (mean difference = 4.9 minutes, P < .001, d = 0.39) at 12 weeks compared with baseline. There were also significant but moderate increases in Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run laps (mean difference = 6.5 laps, P < .001, d = 0.47) at 12 weeks compared with baseline. Generalized mixed models respectively yielded 3.02 and 2.34 greater odds that a child would achieve step count and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity standards and 2.26 greater odds that a child would achieve aerobic fitness standards at 12 weeks compared with baseline (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS The 12-week CSPAP improved physical activity and HRF in children from low-income families; however, the magnitude of the effects was weak to moderate.

Effect of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program on School Day Step Counts in Children.

BACKGROUND Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programming (CSPAP) has the potential to increase physical activity (PA) in children over time. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of CSPAP on school day step counts in children. METHODS Participants were 327 fourth and fifth grade children recruited from 4 elementary schools. The study was conducted within an Interrupted Time-Series Design framework. School day step counts were collected for 5 days across preintervention and postintervention time-points (10 days total) using NL-1000 piezoelectric pedometers. Robust piecewise regression examined pre- and postintervention intercepts and slopes, and the change in these parameters using postestimation statistics. RESULTS The slope coefficient was statistically significant across preintervention (β = -105.23, P < .001) but not postintervention time-points (β = -63.23, P = .347), suggesting decreases in steps counts across preintervention and stability of step counts across postintervention school days. Postestimation statistics yielded increases in school day step counts from the end of preintervention (day 5) to the start of postintervention (day 6; t(319) = -4.72, P < .001, Cohens d = 4.72). CONCLUSIONS The CSPAP intervention increased average school day step counts and attenuated decreases in step counts throughout the school week in children.

Validity of two brief primary care physical activity questionnaires with accelerometry in clinic staff.

BACKGROUND To date, no physical activity (PA) questionnaires intended for primary care have been compared against a criterion measure of PA and current (2008) aerobic PA recommendations of the American College of Sports Medicine/American Heart Association (ACSM/AHA). AIM This study evaluated preliminary evidence for criterion validity of two brief (<1 min) PA questionnaires with accelerometry, and their ability to identify if individuals meet ACSM/AHA PA recommendations. METHODS 45 health clinic staff wore an accelerometer for seven consecutive days and afterwards completed two brief PA questionnaires, the Physical Activity Vital Sign (PAVS), and the Speedy Nutrition and Physical Activity Assessment (SNAP). Agreement and descriptive statistics were calculated between the PAVS or SNAP and accelerometry in order to measure each questionnaires ability to quantify the number of days participants achieved ⩾ 30 min of moderate-vigorous PA (MVPA) performed in bouts of ⩾ 10 continuous minutes. Participants with <5 days of ⩾ 30 bout-min of MVPA were considered insufficiently active according to PA recommendations. FINDINGS There was a significant positive correlation between number of days with ⩾ 30 bout-min MVPA and the PAVS (r = 0.52, P < 0.001), and SNAP ( r= 0.31, P < 0.05). The PAVS had moderate agreement with accelerometry for identifying if individuals met or did not meet PA recommendations (κ = 0.46, P < 0.001), whereas SNAP had poor agreement (κ = 0.12, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS This study provides preliminary evidence of criterion validity of the PAVS and SNAP with accelerometry and agreement identifying if respondents meet current (2008) ACSM/AHA aerobic PA recommendations. The PAVS and SNAP should be evaluated further for repeatability, and in populations varying in PA levels, age, gender, and ethnicity.

A comparison of subjective and objective measures of physical exertion

Abstract Better methods are needed to improve validity and reliability of physical activity (PA) assessment instruments. The purpose of this study was to compare individuals Borgs Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scores to GT1M ActiGraph accelerometer output, with the aim to better understand estimates of perceived exertion for exercise prescription. Adults were recruited (n = 117) from Utah, with 43.1% males (n = 50), and most (53.1%) self-reporting regular exercise. Participants performed three indoor laps of increasing intensity, ranging from walking to running, and immediately completed a RPE form. A subsample was mailed the same RPE survey 6–8 weeks later to compare differences from their initial responses. Individual accelerometer data was compared to RPE levels from validated metabolic equivalents (METs). There were significant differences between the RPE ratings and the accelerometer output overall for gender (χ2 = 10.9, P = 0.004), and exercise status (χ2 = 15.5, P < 0.001). The odds of underestimating RPE for an exerciser were 3.67 times greater than a non-exerciser (95% CI = 1.48, 9.11). The subsample also underestimated RPE after the time lapse (Z = −2.324, P = 0.020). Overall, the RPE proved to be a useful tool for most individuals and could be used in individualised exercise prescription, although women may overestimate, and regular exercisers may underestimate exertion.

Waist Circumference, Pedometer Placement, and Step-Counting Accuracy in Youth

This study examined whether differences in waist circumference (WC) and pedometer placement (anterior vs. midaxillary vs. posterior) affect the agreement between pedometer and observed steps during treadmill and self-paced walking. Participants included 19 pairs of youth (9–15 years old) who were matched for sex, race, and height and stratified by WC (high WC: HWC; low WC: LWC). Participants performed 3-min treadmill-walking trials at speeds of 59, 72, and 86 m·min-1 and a 400-m self-paced walking trial on level ground. Bland-Altman plots were used to assess the agreement between pedometer and observed steps of spring-levered pedometers by WC, pedometer placement, and walking speed. In the HWC group, the posterior pedometer placement consistently agreed most closely with observed steps at all treadmill speeds and during self-paced walking. In the LWC group, no single pedometer placement consistently agreed most closely with observed steps at all treadmill speeds and during self-paced walking. We conclude that a posterior pedometer placement improves step-count accuracy in most youth with an HWC at a range of walking speeds on level ground.

Gender Stereotyping and the Influence of Race in Sport among Adolescents.

One of the most dreaded insults in sports is, “You throw like a girl,” because it epitomizes our society’s gender logic about physiological differences between men and women. Although physiological differences between the sexes exist, people label these abilities and behaviors as masculine or feminine as a result of social and cultural expectations. Thus, gender equates to the socially learned expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female (Andersen & Taylor, 2006). Gender socialization begins early when, traditionally, girls are instructed to be passive, submissive, and nurturing, whereas boys are taught to be aggressive, active, and autonomous (Birns, 1976). Gill (2000, 2002) emphasized that gender should be considered within the wider context of social diversity that includes analysis of other ideologies (e.g., race, social class). The sports environment provides a unique microcosm for the examination of both gender and race socialization (Coakley, 2007). Therefore, the purpose our study was to examine both the influence of gender and race among high school youth in classifying sport activities as masculine, feminine, or gender neutral. Engel (1994) and others (e.g., Birrell, 2000; Butler, 1990; Halberstam, 2001; hooks, 1990) have acknowledged that while sports are not naturally gendered, patriarchal societies impose definitions and expectations of masculinity and femininity upon individuals at an early age. Early research on women in sports was mostly atheoretical, focusing on psychological factors such as gender roles, traits, and role conflict (Birrell, 2000). Then, emerging feminist scholars (such as Birrell, Hall, Theberge, and Oglesby) began to recognize that sports were in fact gender-based activities, with value and power associated with masculine traits (Birrell, 2000). Critical feminist theorists argue that ideological changes are needed before gender equity in sports and society can exist. In every culture, men and women play different roles within the social organization or institution. Sport is a male-dominant institution that promotes traditional gender roles and advances male hegemony (Eitzen, 2005). Hegemony is the condition in which groups, in this case, men in sports, wield authority over other groups through imposition, manipulation, and consent. For centuries, sports have been a prominent hegemonic social institution (Kane & Disch, 1993). The growing number of female athletes and recognition of women’s sports challenge the hegemonic ideology of women as inferior to men (Sabo & Messner, 2001). These factors serve to determine the masculine and feminine images of behaviors that are appropriate to men and women (Metheny, 1965). Thus, we label certain sports as masculine or feminine based on “gender appropriateness” (Ostrow, Jones, and Spiker, 1981), which is determined by how much a particular sport requires female athletes to accept or challenge traditional definitions of femininity (Metheny, 1965). Consequently, sports participation is based on whether the activity characteristics are considered socially acceptable for one’s gender (Guillet, Sarrazon, & Fontayne, 2000). Despite challenges to male hegemony, stereotypes of “acceptable” and “unacceptable” sports by gender persist (Riemer & Visio, 2003). Gender Stereotyping and the Influence of Race in Sport Among Adolescents

Should Secondary Physical Education Be Coeducational or Single-Sex?

6 JOPERD • Volume 79 No. 2 • February 2008 Physical education in public and private schools in the United States remained primarily separated by sex until the passage of Title IX in 1972. Under provisions of Title IX, schools were required to provide both boys and girls with the same opportunities to participate in all physical education activities. The only times considered appropriate for boys and girls to be separated was for class competition during contact sports such as wrestling, football, and hockey. As school districts started coming into compliance with Title IX, the inevitable question began to be asked, “Is coeducational or single-sex physical education the best learning environment for all students?” Although one purpose of Title IX legislation was to eliminate gender inequity in physical education, research has indicated that inequitable teaching behaviors have continued and that these behaviors have limited the learning potential of both boys and girls (Dunbar & O’Sullivan, 1986; Griffi n, 1984; Treanor, Graber, Housner, & Wiegand, 1998). This has led some to call for occasional, singlesex groupings within coeducational physical education (Gabbei, 2004), or a return to single-sex physical education (Scraton, 1993). Recently, the U.S. Department of Education (2006) made changes to alleviate restrictions on single-sex classes. These changes have provided greater fl exibility for schools to be able to offer single-sex classes. The changes also require single-sex classes to be evaluated every two years to make sure that males and females are being treated equitably. We have found that nearly half of the middle or junior high schools in which we have placed student teachers have taken advantage of the Department of Education’s alleviated restrictions to switch back to single-sex physical education classes. In our view, this action is as premature as the sudden switch to coeducational classes was in the 1970s. Educational reform should be based on a heavy dose of supporting research. After reform has been made, it should be carefully assessed to determine whether or not it is meeting its intended purpose. The move to coeducational classes in physical education was not supported by an appropriate amount of research, and the current trend towards switching back to single-sex physical education also lacks support. If we solely examine the limited available research, it is diffi cult to answer the question of whether coeducational or single-sex physical education provides the best learning environment in secondary physical education. Relatively few studies have been published, and their conclusions in support of either coeducational or singlesex physical education have often varied based on the outcome(s) of interest and grade levels investigated. The studies that have been conducted have focused primarily on teacher and student perceptions, student-teacher interactions and participation opportunities, and student physical activity levels in coeducational and singlesex physical education.