Tomas Babak

Global analysis of mRNA localization reveals a prominent role in organizing cellular architecture and function.

Although subcellular mRNA trafficking has been demonstrated as a mechanism to control protein distribution, it is generally believed that most protein localization occurs subsequent to translation. To address this point, we developed and employed a high-resolution fluorescent in situ hybridization procedure to comprehensively evaluate mRNA localization dynamics during early Drosophila embryogenesis. Surprisingly, of the 3370 genes analyzed, 71% of those expressed encode subcellularly localized mRNAs. Dozens of new and striking localization patterns were observed, implying an equivalent variety of localization mechanisms. Tight correlations between mRNA distribution and subsequent protein localization and function, indicate major roles for mRNA localization in nucleating localized cellular machineries. A searchable web resource documenting mRNA expression and localization dynamics has been established and will serve as an invaluable tool for dissecting localization mechanisms and for predicting gene functions and interactions.

Using expression profiling data to identify human microRNA targets

We demonstrate that paired expression profiles of microRNAs (miRNAs) and mRNAs can be used to identify functional miRNA-target relationships with high precision. We used a Bayesian data analysis algorithm, GenMiR++, to identify a network of 1,597 high-confidence target predictions for 104 human miRNAs, which was supported by RNA expression data across 88 tissues and cell types, sequence complementarity and comparative genomics data. We experimentally verified our predictions by investigating the result of let-7b downregulation in retinoblastoma using quantitative reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR and microarray profiling: some of our verified let-7b targets include CDC25A and BCL7A. Compared to sequence-based predictions, our high-scoring GenMiR++ predictions had much more consistent Gene Ontology annotations and were more accurate predictors of which mRNA levels respond to changes in let-7b levels.

Global survey of escape from X inactivation by RNA-sequencing in mouse

X inactivation equalizes the dosage of gene expression between the sexes, but some genes escape silencing and are thus expressed from both alleles in females. To survey X inactivation and escape in mouse, we performed RNA sequencing in Mus musculus x Mus spretus cells with complete skewing of X inactivation, relying on expression of single nucleotide polymorphisms to discriminate allelic origin. Thirteen of 393 (3.3%) mouse genes had significant expression from the inactive X, including eight novel escape genes. We estimate that mice have significantly fewer escape genes compared with humans. Furthermore, escape genes did not cluster in mouse, unlike the large escape domains in human, suggesting that expression is controlled at the level of individual genes. Our findings are consistent with the striking differences in phenotypes between female mice and women with a single X chromosome--a near normal phenotype in mice versus Turner syndrome and multiple abnormalities in humans. We found that escape genes are marked by the absence of trimethylation at lysine 27 of histone H3, a chromatin modification associated with genes subject to X inactivation. Furthermore, this epigenetic mark is developmentally regulated for some mouse genes.

Critical Evaluation of Imprinted Gene Expression by RNA–Seq: A New Perspective

In contrast to existing estimates of approximately 200 murine imprinted genes, recent work based on transcriptome sequencing uncovered parent-of-origin allelic effects at more than 1,300 loci in the developing brain and two adult brain regions, including hundreds present in only males or females. Our independent replication of the embryonic brain stage, where the majority of novel imprinted genes were discovered and the majority of previously known imprinted genes confirmed, resulted in only 12.9% concordance among the novel imprinted loci. Further analysis and pyrosequencing-based validation revealed that the vast majority of the novel reported imprinted loci are false-positives explained by technical and biological variation of the experimental approach. We show that allele-specific expression (ASE) measured with RNA–Seq is not accurately modeled with statistical methods that assume random independent sampling and that systematic error must be accounted for to enable accurate identification of imprinted expression. Application of a robust approach that accounts for these effects revealed 50 candidate genes where allelic bias was predicted to be parent-of-origin–dependent. However, 11 independent validation attempts through a range of allelic expression biases confirmed only 6 of these novel cases. The results emphasize the importance of independent validation and suggest that the number of imprinted genes is much closer to the initial estimates.

Global Survey of Genomic Imprinting by Transcriptome Sequencing

Genomic imprinting restricts gene expression to a paternal or maternal allele. To date, approximately 90 imprinted transcripts have been identified in mouse, of which the majority were detected after intense interrogation of clusters of imprinted genes identified by phenotype-driven assays in mice with uniparental disomies [1]. Here we use selective priming and parallel sequencing to measure allelic bias in whole transcriptomes. By distinguishing parent-of-origin bias from strain-specific bias in embryos derived from a reciprocal cross of mice, we constructed a genome-wide map of imprinted transcription. This map was able to objectively locate over 80% of known imprinted loci and allowed the detection and confirmation of six novel imprinted genes. Even in the intensely studied embryonic day 9.5 developmental stage that we analyzed, more than half of all imprinted single-nucleotide polymorphisms did not overlap previously discovered imprinted transcripts; a large fraction of these represent novel noncoding RNAs within known imprinted loci. For example, a previously unnoticed, maternally expressed antisense transcript was mapped within the Grb10 locus. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using transcriptome sequencing for mapping of imprinted gene expression in physiologically normal animals. Such an approach will allow researchers to study imprinting without restricting themselves to individual loci or specific transcripts.

Functional coordination of alternative splicing in the mammalian central nervous system

BackgroundAlternative splicing (AS) functions to expand proteomic complexity and plays numerous important roles in gene regulation. However, the extent to which AS coordinates functions in a cell and tissue type specific manner is not known. Moreover, the sequence code that underlies cell and tissue type specific regulation of AS is poorly understood.ResultsUsing quantitative AS microarray profiling, we have identified a large number of widely expressed mouse genes that contain single or coordinated pairs of alternative exons that are spliced in a tissue regulated fashion. The majority of these AS events display differential regulation in central nervous system (CNS) tissues. Approximately half of the corresponding genes have neural specific functions and operate in common processes and interconnected pathways. Differential regulation of AS in the CNS tissues correlates strongly with a set of mostly new motifs that are predominantly located in the intron and constitutive exon sequences neighboring CNS-regulated alternative exons. Different subsets of these motifs are correlated with either increased inclusion or increased exclusion of alternative exons in CNS tissues, relative to the other profiled tissues.ConclusionOur findings provide new evidence that specific cellular processes in the mammalian CNS are coordinated at the level of AS, and that a complex splicing code underlies CNS specific AS regulation. This code appears to comprise many new motifs, some of which are located in the constitutive exons neighboring regulated alternative exons. These data provide a basis for understanding the molecular mechanisms by which the tissue specific functions of widely expressed genes are coordinated at the level of AS.

miRNA and piRNA localization in the male mammalian meiotic nucleus

During mammalian meiosis, transcriptional silencing of the XY bivalent is a necessary event where defects may lead to infertility in males. While not well understood, the mechanism of meiotic gene silencing is believed to be RNA-dependent. In this study, we investigated the types and localization of non-coding RNAs in the meiotic nucleus of the male mouse using a microarray screen with different cell isolates as well as FISH. We report that the dense body, a component of the murine spermatocyte sex body similar to that of a dense body in Chinese hamster spermatocytes, is DNA-negative but rich in proteins and RNA including miRNAs (micro RNAs) and piRNAs (PIWI associated small RNAs), or their precursors. Selective miRNAs and piRNAs localize to chromosome cores, telomeres and the sex body of spermatocytes. These RNAs have not previously been detected in meiotic nuclei. These RNAs appear to associate with the nucleolus of the Sertoli cells as well as with the dense body. While in MIWI-null male mice the nucleolar signal from miRNA and piRNA probes in Sertoli cells is largely diminished, a differential regulation must exist in meiotic nuclei since the localization of these two components appears to be unaffected in the null animal.

Global analysis of the evolution and mechanism of echinocandin resistance in Candida glabrata.

The evolution of drug resistance has a profound impact on human health. Candida glabrata is a leading human fungal pathogen that can rapidly evolve resistance to echinocandins, which target cell wall biosynthesis and are front-line therapeutics for Candida infections. Here, we provide the first global analysis of mutations accompanying the evolution of fungal drug resistance in a human host utilizing a series of C. glabrata isolates that evolved echinocandin resistance in a patient treated with the echinocandin caspofungin for recurring bloodstream candidemia. Whole genome sequencing identified a mutation in the drug target, FKS2, accompanying a major resistance increase, and 8 additional non-synonymous mutations. The FKS2-T1987C mutation was sufficient for echinocandin resistance, and associated with a fitness cost that was mitigated with further evolution, observed in vitro and in a murine model of systemic candidemia. A CDC6-A511G(K171E) mutation acquired before FKS2-T1987C(S663P), conferred a small resistance increase. Elevated dosage of CDC55, which acquired a C463T(P155S) mutation after FKS2-T1987C(S663P), ameliorated fitness. To discover strategies to abrogate echinocandin resistance, we focused on the molecular chaperone Hsp90 and downstream effector calcineurin. Genetic or pharmacological compromise of Hsp90 or calcineurin function reduced basal tolerance and resistance. Hsp90 and calcineurin were required for caspofungin-dependent FKS2 induction, providing a mechanism governing echinocandin resistance. A mitochondrial respiration-defective petite mutant in the series revealed that the petite phenotype does not confer echinocandin resistance, but renders strains refractory to synergy between echinocandins and Hsp90 or calcineurin inhibitors. The kidneys of mice infected with the petite mutant were sterile, while those infected with the HSP90-repressible strain had reduced fungal burden. We provide the first global view of mutations accompanying the evolution of fungal drug resistance in a human host, implicate the premier compensatory mutation mitigating the cost of echinocandin resistance, and suggest a new mechanism of echinocandin resistance with broad therapeutic potential.

Genetic conflict reflected in tissue-specific maps of genomic imprinting in human and mouse.

Genomic imprinting is an epigenetic process that restricts gene expression to either the maternally or paternally inherited allele. Many theories have been proposed to explain its evolutionary origin, but understanding has been limited by a paucity of data mapping the breadth and dynamics of imprinting within any organism. We generated an atlas of imprinting spanning 33 mouse and 45 human developmental stages and tissues. Nearly all imprinted genes were imprinted in early development and either retained their parent-of-origin expression in adults or lost it completely. Consistent with an evolutionary signature of parental conflict, imprinted genes were enriched for coexpressed pairs of maternally and paternally expressed genes, showed accelerated expression divergence between human and mouse, and were more highly expressed than their non-imprinted orthologs in other species. Our approach demonstrates a general framework for the discovery of imprinting in any species and sheds light on the causes and consequences of genomic imprinting in mammals.

Systematic detection of polygenic cis-regulatory evolution.

The idea that most morphological adaptations can be attributed to changes in the cis-regulation of gene expression levels has been gaining increasing acceptance, despite the fact that only a handful of such cases have so far been demonstrated. Moreover, because each of these cases involves only one gene, we lack any understanding of how natural selection may act on cis-regulation across entire pathways or networks. Here we apply a genome-wide test for selection on cis-regulation to two subspecies of the mouse Mus musculus. We find evidence for lineage-specific selection at over 100 genes involved in diverse processes such as growth, locomotion, and memory. These gene sets implicate candidate genes that are supported by both quantitative trait loci and a validated causality-testing framework, and they predict a number of phenotypic differences, which we confirm in all four cases tested. Our results suggest that gene expression adaptation is widespread and that these adaptations can be highly polygenic, involving cis-regulatory changes at numerous functionally related genes. These coordinated adaptations may contribute to divergence in a wide range of morphological, physiological, and behavioral phenotypes.