Tonia Warnecke

Entrepreneurship and Gender: An Institutional Perspective

Institutional economics has long shown that entrepreneurship plays a critical role in the pursuit of economic development and wellbeing. At the same time, entrepreneurship is complex and evolving. The path between entrepreneurship and wellbeing is not clear-cut, and not all types of entrepreneurial activity are correlated with economic growth. Failure to acknowledge this heterogeneity has important consequences for entrepreneurship policy and human development, particularly where gender is concerned. The paper treats the complexities involved in defining and conceptualizing entrepreneurship, setting the stage for a focus on the gender dimension. As female entrepreneurial activity has risen in many countries around the world, it is important to acknowledge the diversity of such activity and the ways it does (or does not) correspond to an increase in human freedom. Highlighting the differences between necessity and opportunity entrepreneurship, this paper illustrates the formal and informal institutions that shape gender inequity in the entrepreneurial environment. It concludes with some suggestions for addressing this important issue.

Diamonds in the Rubble: The Women of Haiti

Although Haitis 2010 earthquake brought to light the inconceivable poverty existing in the Western Hemisphere, Haitis struggle for economic development long pre-dated that earthquake. One problem in Haiti is the high level of gender inequity, and we argue that human development theory is the best mode for change. We provide a brief background of Haitis economic development over the last several decades, along with the status of womens rights and gender-differentiated socioeconomic outcomes. We analyze the ways that policy neglect of gender equity in Haiti has contributed to failed economic development in the past. Finally, we identify ways that other developing countries have successfully incorporated a focus on gender equity in their development strategy, particularly in the face of natural disaster and financial crisis. Our goal is working toward a set of leading practices consistent with institutionalism that can be used in relating gender (in)equality to economic development.

Female entrepreneurship in China: opportunity- or necessity-based?

The paper investigates the inequalities within entrepreneurship which are hindering Chinese socio-economic development. We take an institutionalist and gender-based approach. We establish the relationship between entrepreneurship and economic development and create a historical framework from which we examine contemporary female entrepreneurship. We find that females in China often engage in entrepreneurship in the informal sector, where average income is lower. Females are more likely than men to engage in necessity-based entrepreneurship rather than opportunity-based entrepreneurship in China. Therefore, the overall increase in female entrepreneurship in China in recent years does not necessarily imply improvement in living standards for those women. The paper demonstrates that different classes of entrepreneurs face different barriers, and that females need targeted assistance so that the gender gap in entrepreneurship can be reduced. Government should take responsibility for deconstructing social and cultural barriers to women through policy initiatives, as well as promoting womens entrepreneurial training and capital formation. There is also a key role for the non-governmental sector and international organisations to play in educating government, businesses, and workers, as well as pressuring and/or coordinating them where needed.

Women as Wives, Mothers or Workers: How Welfare Eligibility Requirements Influence Women’s Labor Force Participation – A Case Study of Spain –

Abstract: During the last thirty years, one of the most remarkable trends in Western Europe and North America has been the increase in women’s labor force participation rates. However, there has been considerable variation among countries; rates in Southern European countries are markedly lower than in other regions. Standard welfare state regime typology is unable to explain this outcome. This paper tackles the issue by examining the institutional determinants of employment decisions in Spain. Family policies and tax policies greatly influence the labor force participation of women by either promoting or discouraging the employment of mothers. However, these policies do not affect women in the same way. Of particular importance is whether women can claim benefits on the basis of their citizenship, or whether their status as wives or mothers is the link to benefits. By pursuing this line of analysis, the paper explains the low female labor force participation in Spain, providing an important contribution to the welfare state regime literature.

Comparing domestic and returnee female entrepreneurs in China: is there an internationalisation effect?

The number of women entrepreneurs in China has increased rapidly with the development of Chinas new economy. These entrepreneurs consist of returnees and domestics. This study seeks to identify the key patterns in the entrepreneurial development of the two groups and the factors that influence their career paths and success. We study the entrepreneurial development of women entrepreneurs in China through historical review and case studies of 12 high profile women. As compared to domestics, we find that returnees are relatively more educated, start their businesses younger or reach executive positions at a

Teaching globalisation from a feminist pluralist perspective

Pluralist teaching encourages students to develop critical thinking skills to their fullest potential. This article presents guidelines for a globalisation course taught from a feminist pluralist perspective by the author during the fall of 2008. The article discusses course objectives, assessment tools and the inherent challenges in developing and teaching such a course. It also includes the full syllabus. The author concludes that the benefits of teaching from a pluralist perspective are immensely rewarding for both student and teacher.

The Enforcement of Decent Work in India and Indonesia: Developing Sustainable Institutions

Although informal labor has proliferated in many developing countries, the desire to attract foreign direct investment has often led to a disassociation of the national government from labor regulation at the federal level. Enforcement capacity (and commitment) at the state/provincial level is crucial. We analyze two key newly industrialized countries in Asia, Indonesia and India, comparing their enforcement capacity in the realm of decent work. We highlight the variation in the degree of labor law enforcement found within each country, noting how the different degrees of centralization in each country translate into labor relations and enforcement outcomes. We conclude with some recommendations for policy and practice.

“Greening” Gender Equity: Microfinance and the Sustainable Development Agenda

Abstract: In the wake of the 2008 financial crisis and multiple natural disasters, the sustainable development agenda has regained popularity, although the meaning of the term “sustainable development” remains contested. I follow the conceptualization emerging from the Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012 of three interlocking dimensions: economic, environmental, and social. Focusing on the social-environmental nexus of sustainable development, I consider the relationship between gender equity and the environment before turning to one of the most popular interventions for gender equity in the developing world, microfinance. Although microfinance typically is examined along the social-economic nexus (improving gender empowerment via earned income opportunities), I explore its relationship to environmental sustainability and make suggestions for improving the capacity of microfinance in this area.

Are we fostering opportunity entrepreneurship for women? Exploring policies and programmes in China and India

This paper critically explores a variety of female entrepreneurship policies and programmes in China and India (examples include incubator projects as well as training, education, credit, and other financial programmes), providing a much-needed overview of the current state of support for women entrepreneurs in these countries and which economic sectors and actors (governments, non-governmental organisations, and private firms) are most engaged in providing this support. The paper also evaluates which types and structures of programmes are more likely to promote upward mobility and opportunity entrepreneurship. Finally, the paper presents an exploratory framework for considering five key characteristics of female entrepreneurship programmes (provision of money, goods, or services; skills training; business development services; professional networking services; and/or professional mentoring) and their relationship to necessity and opportunity entrepreneurship. It also gauges the inclusivity of the programmes. Further research can build upon this framework and develop a more sophisticated classification system.

Labor Standards, Gender, and Decent Work in Newly Industrialized Countries: Promoting the Good Society

As the shortcomings of the dominant “Washington Consensus” approach to economic development and well-being become ever more apparent, there has been increasing concern expressed at the pitfalls of globalization and the activities of multinational corporations (Sen 1999; Rodrik 2001; Stiglitz 2002; Bailey and De Ruyter 2007). In particular, concerns have been expressed over the growth of vulnerable employment (largely in the informal sector) that has occurred directly as a result of neoliberal policies espoused under the Washington Consensus; the “Washington Consensus” approach has ignored gender, labor, and environment issues and further entrenched existing inequalities (De Ruyter and Warnecke 2008).