Travis C. Pratt

The Empirical Status of Social Learning Theory: A Meta‐Analysis

Social learning theory has remained one of the core criminological paradigms over the last four decades. Although a large body of scholarship has emerged testing various propositions specified by the theory, the empirical status of the theory in its entirety is still unknown. Accordingly, in the present study, we subject this body of empirical literature to a meta‐analysis to assess its empirical status. Results reveal considerable variation in the magnitude and stability of effect sizes for variables specified by social learning theory across different methodological specifications. In particular, relationships of crime/deviance to measures of differential association and definitions (or antisocial attitudes) are quite strong, yet those for differential reinforcement and modeling/imitation are modest at best. Furthermore, effect sizes for differential association, definitions, and differential reinforcement all differed significantly according to variations in model specification and research designs across studies. The implications for the continued vitality of social learning in criminology are discussed.

Parental Socialization and Community Context: A Longitudinal Analysis of the Structural Sources of Low Self-Control:

Several empirical studies have attempted to estimate the effect of low self-control on criminal and “analogous” behaviors. Most of these studies have shown that low self-control is an important feature of the cause(s) of crime. Although research is beginning to emerge that targets more specifically the “roots” of self-control via parental socialization (the most salient factor in the development of self-control according to Hirschi and Gottfredson), researchers have yet to explore the degree to which the structural characteristics of communities may influence patterns of parental socialization and, in turn, individual levels of self-control. To address this question, the authors employ longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) to examine community-level influences on parental socialization and self-control. The results indicate (1) self-control was predicted both cross-sectionally and longitudinally by both parental socialization and adverse neighborhood conditions, (2) the total effect of adverse neighborhood conditions on children’s levels of self-control was just as strong as the total effect for indicators of parental socialization, and (3) important race differences did emerge, particularly with regard to the inter-relationships between our neighborhood-level measures and parental socialization.

Parental Efficacy, Self-Control, and Delinquency: a Test of a General Theory of Crime on a Nationally Representative Sample of Youth

Criminologists have recently begun examining Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) proposition that parenting is the primary influence on children’s levels of self-control. The few existing studies on the subject, however, have typically been based on small, nonrandom samples. The current study examines the relationships between parental efficacy, self-control, and delinquent behavior using data from a nationally representative sample of adolescents (the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health). The results indicate that although parental efficacy is an important precursor to self-control, contrary to Gottfredson and Hirschi’s proposition, self-control does not completely mediate the relationship between parental efficacy and delinquency. The implications for future research and theoretical development are discussed.

Parental management, ADHD, and delinquent involvement: Reassessing Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory

A core proposition of Gottfredson and Hirschis general theory of crime is that ineffective parenting fosters low self-control in children, which leads to delinquent conduct. Using a sample of 2,472 students, we examined the impact of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on self-control and delinquency. The analysis revealed three main findings. First, low self-control was a strong predictor of both self-reported delinquency and self-reported arrests. Second, parental monitoring not only increased self-control, but had direct effects on both measures of delinquency. Third, the effects of ADHD on delinquency were largely through low self-control.

Replicating Sampson and Groves's Test of Social Disorganization Theory: Revisiting a Criminological Classic:

Using data from the British Crime Survey conducted in 1982, Sampson and Groves provided a convincing test of social disorganization theory. Although macro-level theory was in the midst of a revival when this investigation appeared, no single article did more to polish the previously tarnished image of social disorganization theory than Sampson and Grovess analysis; in fact, this work has become a criminological classic. Subsequent research, however, has not systematically replicated this study. Questions thus remain as to whether Sampson and Groves uncovered enduring empirical realities or idiosyncratic relationships reflecting the time period from which the data were drawn. In this context, the current research seeks to replicate Sampson and Grovess findings with data from the 1994 British Crime Survey. Analyses of similar models with similar measures yield results consistent with social disorganization theory and consistent with the results presented by Sampson and Groves. Our study suggests, therefore, that the findings of the initial classic study were not artifactual but illuminated an underlying empirical pattern that has persisted over time.

Routine Online Activity and Internet Fraud Targeting: Extending the Generality of Routine Activity Theory

Routine activity theory predicts that changes in legitimate opportunity structures (e.g., technology) can increase the convergence of motivated offenders and suitable targets in the absence of capable guardianship. The Internet has fundamentally changed consumer practices and has simultaneously expanded opportunities for cyber-fraudsters to target online consumers. The authors draw on routine activity theory and consumer behavior research to understand how personal characteristics and online routines increase people’s exposure to motivated offenders. Using a representative sample of 922 adults from a statewide survey in Florida, the results of the regression models are consistent with prior research in that sociodemographic characteristics shape routine online activity (e.g., spending time online and making online purchases). Furthermore, indicators of routine online activity fully mediate the effect of sociodemographic characteristics on the likelihood of being targeted for fraud online. These findings support the routine activity perspective and provide a theoretically informed direction for situational crime prevention in a largely unexplored consumer context.

Race and sentencing: A meta-analysis of conflicting empirical research results

Abstract This paper employs meta-analytic methodology to evaluate the research results of a number of separate race and sentencing studies in the context of three competing theoretical frameworks (the differential involvement, direct-impact, and interactionist perspectives), and the empirical evidence supporting each. The data indicate that although the effect size of race on sentencing is not statistically significant at this level of aggregation, its relationship to sentencing is significantly conditioned by the measurement techniques employed by researchers. Specifically, this study shows that certain methods of classifying racial groups may mask the true effect of race on sentencing decisions. The implications of this finding for future research are discussed.

Social support and homicide: a cross-national test of an emerging criminological theory

The social support (also known as social altruism) perspective in criminological theory has emerged as a potentially important explanation of aggregate levels of crime. Recent studies have tested the theorys ability to predict levels of violent and property crimes at the city and state levels in the United States, yet a formal test of the theory using data from outside of the U.S. has yet to be conducted. Accordingly, this article draws on insights from social support theory in a cross-national context. Consistent with the core proposition of the theory, the analyses show that, net of statistical controls, the indicator of social support is inversely and significantly related to rates of violent crime (measured by homicides). The implications of these results for criminological theory development and for the construction of effective crime control policies are discussed.

Low Self-Control and Imprudent Behavior Revisited

This study assesses the effect of low self-control on traditional offending-oriented outcomes and three imprudent behaviors—“drunk dialing,” public profanity, and public flatulence. The sample consists of approximately 500 undergraduate students. The results from the regression analyses show that low self-control is associated with typical offending, academic fraud, and binge drinking. More importantly, low self-control is also associated with making telephone calls while under the influence of alcohol, using offensive language in public places, and publicly expelling digestive gases. The results suggest that low self-control not only explains traditional offending-oriented outcomes, but also understudied forms of social deviance.

Are Private Prisons More Cost-Effective Than Public Prisons? A Meta-Analysis of Evaluation Research Studies

The need to reduce the costs of incarceration to state and federal correctional agencies has allowed the movement to privatize correctional institutions to gain considerable momentum. The empirical evidence regarding whether private prisons are more costeffective than public institutions, however, is inconclusive. To address this question, a meta-analysis was conducted of 33 cost-effectiveness evaluations of private and public prisons from 24 independent studies. The results revealed that private prisons were no more cost-effective than public prisons, and that other institutional characteristics—such as the facilitys economy of scale, age, and security level—were the strongest predictors of a prisons daily per diem cost.