Vaibhav B. Shah

Small-Molecule Inhibition of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Infection by Virus Capsid Destabilization

ABSTRACT Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection is dependent on the proper disassembly of the viral capsid, or “uncoating,” in target cells. The HIV-1 capsid consists of a conical multimeric complex of the viral capsid protein (CA) arranged in a hexagonal lattice. Mutations in CA that destabilize the viral capsid result in impaired infection owing to defects in reverse transcription in target cells. We describe here the mechanism of action of a small molecule HIV-1 inhibitor, PF-3450074 (PF74), which targets CA. PF74 acts at an early stage of HIV-1 infection and inhibits reverse transcription in target cells. We show that PF74 binds specifically to HIV-1 particles, and substitutions in CA that confer resistance to the compound prevent binding. A single point mutation in CA that stabilizes the HIV-1 core also conferred strong resistance to the virus without inhibiting compound binding. Treatment of HIV-1 particles or purified cores with PF74 destabilized the viral capsid in vitro. Furthermore, the compound induced the rapid dissolution of the HIV-1 capsid in target cells. PF74 antiviral activity was promoted by binding of the host protein cyclophilin A to the HIV-1 capsid, and PF74 and cyclosporine exhibited mutual antagonism. Our data suggest that PF74 triggers premature HIV-1 uncoating in target cells, thereby mimicking the activity of the retrovirus restriction factor TRIM5α. This study highlights uncoating as a step in the HIV-1 life cycle that is susceptible to small molecule intervention.

The Host Proteins Transportin SR2/TNPO3 and Cyclophilin A Exert Opposing Effects on HIV-1 Uncoating

ABSTRACT Following entry of the HIV-1 core into target cells, productive infection depends on the proper disassembly of the viral capsid (uncoating). Although much is known regarding HIV-1 entry, the actions of host cell proteins that HIV-1 utilizes during early postentry steps are poorly understood. One such factor, transportin SR2 (TRN-SR2)/transportin 3 (TNPO3), promotes infection by HIV-1 and some other lentiviruses, and recent studies have genetically linked TNPO3 dependence of infection to the viral capsid protein (CA). Here we report that purified recombinant TNPO3 stimulates the uncoating of HIV-1 cores in vitro. The stimulatory effect was reduced by RanGTP, a known ligand for transportin family members. Depletion of TNPO3 in target cells rendered HIV-1 less susceptible to inhibition by PF74, a small-molecule HIV-1 inhibitor that induces premature uncoating. In contrast to the case for TNPO3, addition of the CA-binding host protein cyclophilin A (CypA) inhibited HIV-1 uncoating and reduced the stimulatory effect of TNPO3 on uncoating in vitro. In cells in which TNPO3 was depleted, HIV-1 infection was enhanced 4-fold by addition of cyclosporine, indicating that the requirement for TNPO3 in HIV-1 infection is modulated by CypA-CA interactions. Although TNPO3 was localized primarily to the cytoplasm, depletion of TNPO3 from target cells inhibited HIV-1 infection without reducing the accumulation of nuclear proviral DNA, suggesting that TNPO3 facilitates a stage of the virus life cycle subsequent to nuclear entry. Our results suggest that TNPO3 and cyclophilin A facilitate HIV-1 infection by coordinating proper uncoating of the core in target cells.

Rhesus TRIM5α disrupts the HIV-1 capsid at the inter-hexamer interfaces.

TRIM proteins play important roles in the innate immune defense against retroviral infection, including human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1). Rhesus macaque TRIM5α (TRIM5αrh) targets the HIV-1 capsid and blocks infection at an early post-entry stage, prior to reverse transcription. Studies have shown that binding of TRIM5α to the assembled capsid is essential for restriction and requires the coiled-coil and B30.2/SPRY domains, but the molecular mechanism of restriction is not fully understood. In this study, we investigated, by cryoEM combined with mutagenesis and chemical cross-linking, the direct interactions between HIV-1 capsid protein (CA) assemblies and purified TRIM5αrh containing coiled-coil and SPRY domains (CC-SPRYrh). Concentration-dependent binding of CC-SPRYrh to CA assemblies was observed, while under equivalent conditions the human protein did not bind. Importantly, CC-SPRYrh, but not its human counterpart, disrupted CA tubes in a non-random fashion, releasing fragments of protofilaments consisting of CA hexamers without dissociation into monomers. Furthermore, such structural destruction was prevented by inter-hexamer crosslinking using P207C/T216C mutant CA with disulfide bonds at the CTD-CTD trimer interface of capsid assemblies, but not by intra-hexamer crosslinking via A14C/E45C at the NTD-NTD interface. The same disruption effect by TRIM5αrh on the inter-hexamer interfaces also occurred with purified intact HIV-1 cores. These results provide insights concerning how TRIM5α disrupts the virion core and demonstrate that structural damage of the viral capsid by TRIM5α is likely one of the important components of the mechanism of TRIM5α-mediated HIV-1 restriction.

Discovery of Novel Small-Molecule HIV-1 Replication Inhibitors That Stabilize Capsid Complexes

ABSTRACT The identification of novel antiretroviral agents is required to provide alternative treatment options for HIV-1-infected patients. The screening of a phenotypic cell-based viral replication assay led to the identification of a novel class of 4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrazol-6-one (pyrrolopyrazolone) HIV-1 inhibitors, exemplified by two compounds: BI-1 and BI-2. These compounds inhibited early postentry stages of viral replication at a step(s) following reverse transcription but prior to 2 long terminal repeat (2-LTR) circle formation, suggesting that they may block nuclear targeting of the preintegration complex. Selection of viruses resistant to BI-2 revealed that substitutions at residues A105 and T107 within the capsid (CA) amino-terminal domain (CANTD) conferred high-level resistance to both compounds, implicating CA as the antiviral target. Direct binding of BI-1 and/or BI-2 to CANTD was demonstrated using isothermal titration calorimetry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) chemical shift titration analyses. A high-resolution crystal structure of the BI-1:CANTD complex revealed that the inhibitor bound within a recently identified inhibitor binding pocket (CANTD site 2) between CA helices 4, 5, and 7, on the surface of the CANTD, that also corresponds to the binding site for the host factor CPSF-6. The functional consequences of BI-1 and BI-2 binding differ from previously characterized inhibitors that bind the same site since the BI compounds did not inhibit reverse transcription but stabilized preassembled CA complexes. Hence, this new class of antiviral compounds binds CA and may inhibit viral replication by stabilizing the viral capsid.

In vitro Uncoating of HIV-1 Cores

The genome of the retroviruses is encased in a capsid surrounded by a lipid envelope. For lentiviruses, such as HIV-1, the conical capsid shell is composed of CA protein arranged as a lattice of hexagon. The capsid is closed by 7 pentamers at the broad end and 5 at the narrow end of the cone(1, 2). Encased in this capsid shell is the viral ribonucleoprotein complex, and together they comprise the core. Following fusion of the viral membrane with the target cell membrane, the HIV-1 is released into the cytoplasm. The capsid then disassembles releasing free CA in the soluble form(3) in a process referred to as uncoating. The intracellular location and timing of HIV-1 uncoating are poorly understood. Single amino-acid substitutions in CA that alter the stability of the capsid also impair the ability of HIV-1 to infect cells(4). This indicates that the stability of the capsid is critical for HIV-1 infection. HIV-1 uncoating has been difficult to study due to lack of availability of sensitive and reliable assays for this process. Here we describe a quantitative method for studying uncoating in vitro using cores isolated from infectious HIV-1 particles. The approach involves isolation of cores by sedimentation of concentrated virions through a layer of detergent and into a linear sucrose gradient, in the cold. To quantify uncoating, the isolated cores are incubated at 37°C for various timed intervals and subsequently pelleted by ultracentrifugation. The extent of uncoating is analyzed by quantifying the fraction of CA in the supernatant. This approach has been employed to analyze effects of viral mutations on HIV-1 capsid stability(4, 5, 6). It should also be useful for studying the role of cellular factors in HIV-1 uncoating.

Compensatory Substitutions in the HIV-1 Capsid Reduce the Fitness Cost Associated with Resistance to a Capsid-Targeting Small-Molecule Inhibitor

ABSTRACT The HIV-1 capsid plays multiple roles in infection and is an emerging therapeutic target. The small-molecule HIV-1 inhibitor PF-3450074 (PF74) blocks HIV-1 at an early postentry stage by binding the viral capsid and interfering with its function. Selection for resistance resulted in accumulation of five amino acid changes in the viral CA protein, which collectively reduced binding of the compound to HIV-1 particles. In the present study, we dissected the individual and combinatorial contributions of each of the five substitutions Q67H, K70R, H87P, T107N, and L111I to PF74 resistance, PF74 binding, and HIV-1 infectivity. Q67H, K70R, and T107N each conferred low-level resistance to PF74 and collectively conferred strong resistance. The substitutions K70R and L111I impaired HIV-1 infectivity, which was partially restored by the other substitutions at positions 67 and 107. PF74 binding to HIV-1 particles was reduced by the Q67H, K70R, and T107N substitutions, consistent with the location of these positions in the inhibitor-binding pocket. Replication of the 5Mut virus was markedly impaired in cultured macrophages, reminiscent of the previously reported N74D CA mutant. 5Mut substitutions also reduced the binding of the host protein CPSF6 to assembled CA complexes in vitro and permitted infection of cells expressing the inhibitory protein CPSF6-358. Our results demonstrate that strong resistance to PF74 requires accumulation of multiple substitutions in CA to inhibit PF74 binding and compensate for fitness impairments associated with some of the sequence changes. IMPORTANCE The HIV-1 capsid is an emerging drug target, and several small-molecule compounds have been reported to inhibit HIV-1 infection by targeting the capsid. Here we show that resistance to the capsid-targeting inhibitor PF74 requires multiple amino acid substitutions in the binding pocket of the CA protein. Three changes in CA were necessary to inhibit binding of PF74 while maintaining viral infectivity. Replication of the PF74-resistant HIV-1 mutant was impaired in macrophages, likely owing to altered interactions with host cell factors. Our results suggest that HIV-1 resistance to capsid-targeting inhibitors will be limited by functional constraints on the viral capsid protein. Therefore, this work enhances the attractiveness of the HIV-1 capsid as a therapeutic target.

INI1/hSNF5-interaction defective HIV-1 IN mutants exhibit impaired particle morphology, reverse transcription and integration in vivo

BackgroundRetroviral integrase catalyzes integration of viral DNA into the host genome. Integrase interactor (INI)1/hSNF5 is a host factor that binds to HIV-1 IN within the context of Gag-Pol and is specifically incorporated into HIV-1 virions during assembly. Previous studies have indicated that INI1/hSNF5 is required for late events in vivo and for integration in vitro. To determine the effects of disrupting the IN-INI1 interaction on the assembly and infectivity of HIV-1 particles, we isolated mutants of IN that are defective for binding to INI1/hSNF5 and tested their effects on HIV-1 replication.ResultsA reverse yeast two-hybrid system was used to identify INI1-interaction defective IN mutants (IID-IN). Since protein-protein interactions depend on the surface residues, the IID-IN mutants that showed high surface accessibility on IN crystal structures (K71R, K111E, Q137R, D202G, and S147G) were selected for further study. In vitro interaction studies demonstrated that IID-IN mutants exhibit variable degrees of interaction with INI1. The mutations were engineered into HIV-1NL4-3 and HIV-Luc viruses and tested for their effects on virus replication. HIV-1 harboring IID-IN mutations were defective for replication in both multi- and single-round infection assays. The infectivity defects were correlated to the degree of INI1 interaction of the IID-IN mutants. Highly defective IID-IN mutants were blocked at early and late reverse transcription, whereas partially defective IID-IN mutants proceeded through reverse transcription and nuclear localization, but were partially impaired for integration. Electron microscopic analysis of mutant particles indicated that highly interaction-defective IID-IN mutants produced morphologically aberrant virions, whereas the partially defective mutants produced normal virions. All of the IID-IN mutant particles exhibited normal capsid stability and reverse transcriptase activity in vitro.ConclusionsOur results demonstrate that a severe defect in IN-INI1 interaction is associated with production of defective particles and a subsequent defect in post-entry events. A partial defect in IN-INI1 interaction leads to production of normal virions that are partially impaired for early events including integration. Our studies suggest that proper interaction of INI1 with IN within Gag-Pol is necessary for proper HIV-1 morphogenesis and integration.

HIV Nuclear Entry: Clearing the Fog

HIV-1 and other lentiviruses have the unusual capability of infecting nondividing cells, but the mechanism by which they cross an intact nuclear membrane is mysterious. Recent work, including a new study (Lee, K.; Ambrose, Z.; Martin, T.D.; Oztop, I.; Mulky, A.; Julias, J.G.; Vandergraaff, N.; Baumann, J.G.; Wang, R.; Yuen, W. et al. Flexible use of nuclear import pathways by HIV-1. Cell Host Microbe 2010, 7, 221–233) confirms that the viral capsid plays a key role in HIV-1 nuclear entry in both dividing and nondividing cells. The identification of mutations in the viral capsid that alter the virus’s dependence on host cell nucleoporins represents an important advance in this poorly understood stage of the virus life cycle.

Gene Expression Analysis of a Panel of Cell Lines That Differentially Restrict HIV-1 CA Mutants Infection in a Cyclophilin A-Dependent Manner

HIV-1 replication is dependent on binding of the viral capsid to the host protein cyclophilin A (CypA). Interference with cyclophilin A binding, either by mutations in the HIV-1 capsid protein (CA) or by the drug cyclosporine A (CsA), inhibits HIV-1 replication in cell culture. Resistance to CsA is conferred by A92E or G94D substitutions in CA. The mutant viruses are also dependent on CsA for their replication. Interestingly, infection of some cell lines by these mutants is enhanced by CsA, while infection of others is not affected by the drug. The cells are thus termed nonpermissive and permissive, respectively, for infection by CsA-dependent mutants. The mechanistic basis for the cell type dependence is not well understood, but has been hypothesized to result from a dominant-acting host factor that blocks HIV-1 infection by a mechanism that requires CypA binding to the viral capsid. In an effort to identify a CypA-dependent host restriction factor, we adopted a strategy involving comparative gene expression analysis in three permissive and three non-permissive cell types. We ranked the genes based on their relative overexpression in non-permissive cell types compared to the permissive cell types. Based on specific selection criteria, 26 candidate genes were selected and targeted using siRNA in nonpermissive (HeLa) cells. Depletion of none of the selected candidate genes led to the reversal of CsA-dependent phenotype of the A92E mutant. Our data suggest that none of the 26 genes tested is responsible for the dependence of the A92E mutant on CsA. Our study provides gene expression data that may be useful for future efforts to identify the putative CypA-dependent HIV-1 restriction factor and in studies of other cell-specific phenotypes.

Structure of HIV Capsid and Interactions with Rhesus TRIM5α

Mature HIV-1 particles contain a conical-shaped capsid that encloses the viral RNA genome and performs essential functions in the virus life cycle. HIV-1 capsid protein (CA) folds into two distinct domains connected by a flexible linker [1,2]. In mature virions, the assembled capsid structure is best described by a fullerene cone model that is made up from a hexameric lattice containing a variable number of CA pentamers [3]. Furthermore, CA protein assemblies exhibit structural polymorphism, with mature virions exhibiting predominantly conical morphology, while the immature viral particles are spherical assemblies. Therefore, readjustment at the different contact surfaces of CA is necessary in HIV-1 capsid formation. We present a cryoEM study of a tubular assembly of CA. In the tubular assembly, CA intermolecular interfaces vary slightly, accommodating the asymmetry present in tubes. This provides the necessary plasticity to allow for controlled virus capsid assembly. More importantly, in the cryoEM map, we identified a novel CTD-CTD interface at the local three-fold axis and confirmed the functional importance of this trimer interface by mutagenesis and chemical crosslinking (Fig 1) [4].