Val A. Fajardo

Co-Expression of SERCA Isoforms, Phospholamban and Sarcolipin in Human Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Sarcolipin (SLN) and phospholamban (PLN) inhibit the activity of sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPases (SERCAs) by reducing their apparent affinity for Ca2+. A ternary complex between SLN, PLN, and SERCAs results in super-inhibition of SERCA activity. Analysis of skeletal muscle homogenate has limited our current understanding of whether SLN and PLN regulate SERCA1a, SERCA2a, or both in skeletal muscle and whether SLN and PLN are co-expressed in skeletal muscle fibers. Biopsies from human vastus lateralis were analyzed through single fiber Western blotting and immunohisto/fluorescence staining to circumvent this limitation. With a newly generated SLN antibody, we report for the first time that SLN protein is present in human skeletal muscle. Addition of the SLN antibody (50 µg) to vastus lateralis homogenates increased the apparent Ca2+ affinity of SERCA (K Ca, pCa units) (-Ab, 5.85 ± 0.02 vs. +Ab, 5.95 ± 0.02) and maximal SERCA activity (μmol/g protein/min) (-Ab, 122 ± 6.4 vs. +Ab, 159 ± 11) demonstrating a functional interaction between SLN and SERCAs in human vastus lateralis. Specifically, our results suggest that although SLN and PLN may preferentially regulate SERCA1a, and SERCA2a, respectively, physiologically they both may regulate either SERCA isoform. Furthermore, we show that SLN and PLN co-immunoprecipitate in human vastus lateralis homogenate and are simultaneously expressed in 81% of the fibers analyzed with Western blotting which implies that super-inhibition of SERCA may exist in human skeletal muscle. Finally, we demonstrate unequivocally that mouse soleus contains PLN protein suggesting that super-inhibition of SERCA may also be important physiologically in rodent skeletal muscle.

Sarcolipin trumps β-adrenergic receptor signaling as the favored mechanism for muscle-based diet-induced thermogenesis

Sarcolipin (SLN) regulates muscle‐based nonshivering thermogenesis and is up‐regulated with high‐fat feeding (HFF). To investigate whether other muscle‐based thermogenic systems compensate for a lack of Sln and to firmly establish SLN as a mediator of diet‐induced thermogenesis (DIT), we measured muscle and whole‐body energy expenditure in chow‐ and high‐fat‐fed Sln–/– and wild‐type (WT) mice. Following HFF, resting muscle metabolic rate (VO2, μl/g/s) was increased similarly in WT (0.28±0.02 vs. 0.31 ±0.03) and Sln–/– (0.23±0.03 vs. 0.35±0.02) mice due to increased sympathetic nervous system activation in Sln–/– mice; however, whole‐body metabolic rate (VO2, ml/kg/h) was lower in Sln–/– compared with WT mice following HFF but only during periods when the mice were active in their cages (WT, 2894±87 vs. Sln–/–, 2708±61). Treatment with the β‐adrenergic receptor (β‐AR) antagonist propranolol during HFF completely prevented muscle‐based DIT in Sln–/– mice; however, it had no effect in WT mice, resulting in greater differences in whole‐body metabolic rate and diet‐induced weight gain. Our results suggest that β‐AR signaling partially compensates for a lack of SLN to activate muscle‐based DIT, but SLN is the primary and more effective mediator.—Bombardier, E., Smith, I. C., Gamu, D., Fajardo, V. A., Vigna, C., Sayer, R. A., Gupta, S. C., Bal, N. C., Periasamy, M., Tupling, A. R., Sarcolipin trumps β‐adrenergic receptor signaling as the favored mechanism for muscle‐based diet‐induced thermogenesis. FASEB J. 27, 3871–3878 (2013). www.fasebj.org

Ablation of sarcolipin decreases the energy requirements for Ca2+ transport by sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPases in resting skeletal muscle.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of sarcolipin (SLN) on sarco(endo) plasmic reticulum Ca2+‐ATPase (SERCA pump) energetics in vivo and resting skeletal muscle metabolic rate. Using SLN knockout (Sln −/−) mice we show that SLN ablation increases the transport stoichiometry of SERCA pumps (Ca2+ uptake/Ca2+‐ATPase activity) and decreases the relative contribution of SERCA pumps to resting oxygen consumption (VO 2) in soleus without affecting soleus or whole body VO 2. These data suggest that the lower energy requirements for Ca2+ cycling in resting skeletal muscle of Sln −/− mice do not impact significantly either skeletal muscle or whole body metabolic rate.

Sarcolipin provides a novel muscle-based mechanism for adaptive thermogenesis.

The sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) transports Ca2+ into the sarcoplasmic reticulum lumen and contributes significantly to skeletal muscle metabolic rate. Sarcolipin (SLN) has been shown recently to uncouple Ca2+ transport from adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis by SERCA. We have hypothesized that SLN provides a novel mechanism of adaptive thermogenesis within skeletal muscle and protects against diet-induced obesity.

Phospholamban overexpression in mice causes a centronuclear myopathy-like phenotype.

ABSTRACT Centronuclear myopathy (CNM) is a congenital myopathy that is histopathologically characterized by centrally located nuclei, central aggregation of oxidative activity, and type I fiber predominance and hypotrophy. Here, we obtained commercially available mice overexpressing phospholamban (PlnOE), a well-known inhibitor of sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPases (SERCAs), in their slow-twitch type I skeletal muscle fibers to determine the effects on SERCA function. As expected with a 6- to 7-fold overexpression of phospholamban, SERCA dysfunction was evident in PlnOE muscles, with marked reductions in rates of Ca2+ uptake, maximal ATPase activity and the apparent affinity of SERCA for Ca2+. However, our most significant discovery was that the soleus and gluteus minimus muscles from the PlnOE mice displayed overt signs of myopathy: they histopathologically resembled human CNM, with centrally located nuclei, central aggregation of oxidative activity, type I fiber predominance and hypotrophy, progressive fibrosis and muscle weakness. This phenotype is associated with significant upregulation of muscle sarcolipin and dynamin 2, increased Ca2+-activated proteolysis, oxidative stress and protein nitrosylation. Moreover, in our assessment of muscle biopsies from three human CNM patients, we found a significant 53% reduction in SERCA activity and increases in both total and monomeric PLN content compared with five healthy subjects, thereby justifying future studies with more CNM patients. Altogether, our results suggest that the commercially available PlnOE mouse phenotypically resembles human CNM and could be used as a model to test potential mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. To date, there is no cure for CNM and our results suggest that targeting SERCA function, which has already been shown to be an effective therapeutic target for murine muscular dystrophy and human cardiomyopathy, might represent a novel therapeutic strategy to combat CNM. Summary: Phospholamban overexpression in mouse slow-twitch muscle impairs SERCA function and causes histopathological features associated with human centronuclear myopathy.

Dietary docosahexaenoic acid supplementation reduces SERCA Ca2+ transport efficiency in rat skeletal muscle.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) can reduce the efficiency and increase the energy consumption of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase pump and mitochondrial electron transport chain by promoting Na(+) and H(+) membrane permeability, respectively. In skeletal muscle, the sarco(endo) plasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA) pumps are major contributors to resting metabolic rate. Whether DHA can affect SERCA efficiency remains unknown. Here, we examined the hypothesis that dietary supplementation with DHA would reduce Ca(2+) transport efficiency of the SERCA pumps in skeletal muscle. Total lipids were extracted from enriched sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) membranes that were isolated from red vastus lateralis skeletal muscles of rats that were either fed a standard chow diet supplemented with soybean oil or supplemented with DHA for 8 weeks. The fatty acid composition of total SR membrane lipids and the major phospholipid species were determined using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). After 8 weeks of DHA supplementation, total SR DHA content was significantly elevated (control, 4.1 ± 1.0% vs. DHA, 9.9 ± 1.7%; weight percent of total fatty acids) while total arachidonic acid was reduced (control, 13.5 ± 0.4% vs. DHA-fed, 9.4 ± 0.2). Similar changes in these fatty acids were observed in phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylinositol, altogether indicating successful incorporation of DHA into the SR membranes post-diet. As hypothesized, DHA supplementation reduced SERCA Ca(2+) transport efficiency (control, 0.018 ± 0.0002 vs. DHA-fed, 0.014 ± 0.0009) possibly through enhanced SR Ca(2+) permeability (ionophore ratio: control, 2.8 ± 0.2 vs. DHA-fed, 2.2 ± 0.3). Collectively, our results suggest that DHA may promote skeletal muscle-based metabolism and thermogenesis through its influence on SERCA.

Cardiolipin linoleic acid content and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase activity are associated in rat skeletal muscle

Cardiolipin (CL) is an inner-mitochondrial membrane phospholipid that is important for optimal mitochondrial function. Specifically, CL and CL linoleic (18:2ω6) content are known to be positively associated with cytochrome c oxidase (COX) activity. However, this association has not been examined in skeletal muscle. In this study, rats were fed high-fat diets with a naturally occurring gradient in linoleic acid (coconut oil [CO], 5.8%; flaxseed oil [FO], 13.2%; safflower oil [SO], 75.1%) in an attempt to alter both mitochondrial CL fatty acyl composition and COX activity in rat mixed hind-limb muscle. In general, mitochondrial membrane lipid composition was fairly resistant to dietary treatments as only modest changes in fatty acyl composition were detected in CL and other major mitochondrial phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). As a result of this resistance, CL 18:2ω6 content was not different between the dietary groups. Consistent with the lack of changes in CL 18:2ω6 content, mitochondrial COX activity was also not different between the dietary groups. However, correlational analysis using data obtained from rats across the dietary groups showed a significant relationship (p = 0.009, R(2) = 0.21). Specifically, our results suggest that CL 18:2ω6 content may positively influence mitochondrial COX activity thereby making this lipid molecule a potential factor related to mitochondrial health and function in skeletal muscle.

Isolation of Sarcolemmal Plasma Membranes by Mechanically Skinning Rat Skeletal Muscle Fibers for Phospholipid Analysis

Membrane phospholipid (PL) composition has been shown to affect cellular function by altering membrane physical structure. The sarcolemma plasma membrane (SLpm) is integral to skeletal muscle function and health. Previous studies assessing SLpm PL composition have demonstrated contamination from transverse (t)-tubule, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and nuclear membranes. This study assessed the possibility of isolating SL by mechanically skinning skeletal muscle fiber segments for the analysis of SLpm PL composition. Mechanically skinned SLpm from rat extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle fibers underwent Western blot analysis to assess contamination from t-tubule, sarcoplasmic reticulum, nuclear and mitochondrial membranes. The results indicate that isolated SLpm had minimal nuclear and mitochondrial membrane contamination and was void of contamination from sarcoplasmic reticulum and t-tubule membranes. After performing both high-performance thin layer chromatography and gas chromatography, we found that the SLpm obtained by mechanical skinning had higher sphingomyelin and total fatty acid saturation and lower phosphatidylcholine when compared to previous literature. Thus, by avoiding the use of various chemical treatments and membrane fractionation, we present data that may truly represent the SLpm and future studies can use this technique to assess potential changes under various perturbations and disease conditions such as insulin resistance and muscular dystrophy.

Effect of acute and chronic autophagy deficiency on skeletal muscle apoptotic signaling, morphology, and function

Autophagy is a catabolic process that targets and degrades cytoplasmic materials. In skeletal muscle, autophagy is required for the control of mass under catabolic conditions, but is also basally active in the maintenance of myofiber homeostasis. In this study, we found that some specific autophagic markers (LC3-I, LC3-II, SQSTM1) were basally lower in glycolytic muscle compared to oxidative muscle of autophagy competent mice. In contrast, basal autophagic flux was higher in glycolytic muscle. In addition, we used several skeletal muscle-specific Atg7 transgenic mouse models to investigate the effect of acute (iAtg7-/-) and chronic (cAtg7-/-) autophagy deficiency on skeletal muscle morphology, contractility, and apoptotic signaling. While acute autophagy ablation (iAtg7-/-) resulted in increased centralized nuclei in glycolytic muscle, it did not alter contractile properties or measures of apoptosis and proteolysis. In contrast, with chronic autophagy deficiency (cAtg7-/-) there was an increased proportion of centralized nuclei, as well as reduced force and altered twitch kinetics in glycolytic muscle. Glycolytic muscle of cAtg7-/- mice also displayed an increased level of the pro-apoptotic protein BAX, as well as calpain and proteasomal enzymatic activity. Collectively, our data demonstrate cumulative damage from chronic skeletal muscle-specific autophagy deficiency with associated apoptotic and proteasomal upregulation. These findings point towards the importance of investigating different muscle/fiber types when studying skeletal muscle autophagy, and the critical role of autophagy in the maintenance of myofiber function, integrity, and cellular health.

Sarcolipin deletion exacerbates soleus muscle atrophy and weakness in phospholamban overexpressing mice

Sarcolipin (SLN) and phospholamban (PLN) are two small proteins that regulate the sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase pumps. In a recent study, we discovered that Pln overexpression (PlnOE) in slow-twitch type I skeletal muscle fibers drastically impaired SERCA function and caused a centronuclear myopathy-like phenotype, severe muscle atrophy and weakness, and an 8 to 9-fold upregulation of SLN protein in the soleus muscles. Here, we sought to determine the physiological role of SLN upregulation, and based on its role as a SERCA inhibitor, we hypothesized that it would represent a maladaptive response that contributes to the SERCA dysfunction and the overall myopathy observed in the PlnOE mice. To this end, we crossed Sln-null (SlnKO) mice with PlnOE mice to generate a PlnOE/SlnKO mouse colony and assessed SERCA function, CNM pathology, in vitro contractility, muscle mass, calcineurin signaling, daily activity and food intake, and proteolytic enzyme activity. Our results indicate that genetic deletion of Sln did not improve SERCA function nor rescue the CNM phenotype, but did result in exacerbated muscle atrophy and weakness, due to a failure to induce type II fiber compensatory hypertrophy and a reduction in total myofiber count. Mechanistically, our findings suggest that impaired calcineurin activation and resultant decreased expression of stabilin-2, and/or impaired autophagic signaling could be involved. Future studies should examine these possibilities. In conclusion, our study demonstrates the importance of SLN upregulation in combating muscle myopathy in the PlnOE mice, and since SLN is upregulated across several myopathies, our findings may reveal SLN as a novel and universal therapeutic target.