Valerie Gladwell

Motivational, emotional, and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out

Social media utilities have made it easier than ever to know about the range of online or offline social activities one could be engaging. On the upside, these social resources provide a multitude of opportunities for interaction; on the downside, they often broadcast more options than can be pursued, given practical restrictions and limited time. This dual nature of social media has driven popular interest in the concept of Fear of Missing Out – popularly referred to as FoMO. Defined as a pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent, FoMO is characterized by the desire to stay continually connected with what others are doing. The present research presents three studies conducted to advance an empirically based understanding of the fear of missing out phenomenon. The first study collected a diverse international sample of participants in order to create a robust individual differences measure of FoMO, the Fear of Missing Out scale (FoMOs); this study is the first to operationalize the construct. Study 2 recruited a nationally representative cohort to investigate how demographic, motivational and well-being factors relate to FoMO. Study 3 examined the behavioral and emotional correlates of fear of missing out in a sample of young adults. Implications of the FoMOs measure and for the future study of FoMO are discussed.

Heart rate at the onset of muscle contraction and during passive muscle stretch in humans: a role for mechanoreceptors

Previous evidence suggests that the heart rate (HR) increase observed with isometric exercise is dependent on different afferent mechanisms to those eliciting the increase in blood pressure (BP). Central command and muscle metaboreceptors have been shown to contribute to this differential effect. However, in experimental animals passive stretch of the hindlimb increases HR suggesting that small fibre mechanoreceptors could also have a role. This has not been previously shown in humans and was investigated in this study. Healthy human volunteers were instrumented to record BP, ECG, respiration, EMG of rectus femoris and gastrocnemius and contraction force of triceps surae. Voluntary isometric contraction of triceps surae elicited a significant HR change in the first three respiratory cycles at 40 % of maximum voluntary contraction whereas BP did not change significantly until after 30 s. This suggests that different mechanisms are involved in the initiation of the cardiovascular changes. Sustained passive stretch of triceps surae for 1 min, by dorsiflexion of the foot, caused a significant (P < 0.05) increase in HR (5 ± 2.6 beats min−1) with no significant change in BP. A time domain measure of cardiac vagal activity was reduced significantly during passive stretch from 69.7 ± 12.9 to 49.6 ± 8.9 ms. Rapid rhythmic passive stretch (0.5 Hz for 1 min) was without significant effect suggesting that large muscle proprioreceptors are not involved. We conclude that in man small fibre muscle mechanoreceptors responding to stretch, inhibit cardiac vagal activity and thus increase HR. These afferents could contribute to the initial cardiac acceleration in response to muscle contraction.

The influence of small fibre muscle mechanoreceptors on the cardiac vagus in humans

We have previously shown that activation of muscle receptors by passive stretch (PS) increases heart rate (HR) with little change in blood pressure (BP). We proposed that PS selectively inhibits cardiac vagal activity. We attempted to test this by performing PS during experimental alterations in vagal tone. Large decreases in vagal tone were induced using either glycopyrrolate or mild rhythmic exercise. Milder alterations in vagal tone were achieved by altering carotid baroreceptor input: neck pressure (NP) or neck suction (NS). PS of the triceps surae was tested in 14 healthy human volunteers. BP, ECG and respiration were recorded. PS alone caused a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in R–R interval (962 ± 76 ms at baseline compared to 846 ± 151 ms with PS), and showed a reduction in HR variability, which was not significant. The decrease in R–R interval with PS was significantly less (P < 0.05, n= 3) following administration of glycopyrrolate (−8.1 ± 4.5 ms) compared to PS alone (−54 ± 11 ms), and also with PS during handgrip (+10 ± 10 ms) compared with PS alone (−74 ± 15 ms) (P < 0.05, n= 5). Milder reductions in vagal activity (NP) resulted in a small but insignificant further decrease in R–R interval in response to PS (−107 ± 17 ms compared to PS alone −96 ± 13 ms, n= 5). Mild increases in vagal activity (NS) during PS resulted in smaller decreases in R–R interval (−39 ± 5.5 ms) compared to PS alone (−86 ± 17 ms) (P < 0.05, n= 8). BP was not significantly changed by stretch in any tests. The results indicate that amongst muscle receptors there is a specific group activated by stretch that selectively inhibit cardiac vagal tone to produce tachycardia.

Viewing Nature Scenes Positively Affects Recovery of Autonomic Function Following Acute-Mental Stress

A randomized crossover study explored whether viewing different scenes prior to a stressor altered autonomic function during the recovery from the stressor. The two scenes were (a) nature (composed of trees, grass, fields) or (b) built (composed of man-made, urban scenes lacking natural characteristics) environments. Autonomic function was assessed using noninvasive techniques of heart rate variability; in particular, time domain analyses evaluated parasympathetic activity, using root-mean-square of successive differences (RMSSD). During stress, secondary cardiovascular markers (heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure) showed significant increases from baseline which did not differ between the two viewing conditions. Parasympathetic activity, however, was significantly higher in recovery following the stressor in the viewing scenes of nature condition compared to viewing scenes depicting built environments (RMSSD; 50.0 ± 31.3 vs 34.8 ± 14.8 ms). Thus, viewing nature scenes prior to a stressor alters autonomic activity in the recovery period. The secondary aim was to examine autonomic function during viewing of the two scenes. Standard deviation of R-R intervals (SDRR), as change from baseline, during the first 5 min of viewing nature scenes was greater than during built scenes. Overall, this suggests that nature can elicit improvements in the recovery process following a stressor.

The Great Outdoors: how a green exercise environment can benefit all

The studies of human and environment interactions usually consider the extremes of environment on individuals or how humans affect the environment. It is well known that physical activity improves both physiological and psychological well-being, but further evidence is required to ascertain how different environments influence and shape health. This review considers the declining levels of physical activity, particularly in the Western world, and how the environment may help motivate and facilitate physical activity. It also addresses the additional physiological and mental health benefits that appear to occur when exercise is performed in an outdoor environment. However, people’s connectedness to nature appears to be changing and this has important implications as to how humans are now interacting with nature. Barriers exist, and it is important that these are considered when discussing how to make exercise in the outdoors accessible and beneficial for all. The synergistic combination of exercise and exposure to nature and thus the ‘great outdoors’ could be used as a powerful tool to help fight the growing incidence of both physical inactivity and non-communicable disease.

Cardiac vagal activity following three intensities of exercise in humans

Cardioprotective benefits of exercising at vigorous intensities are known, but reservations remain in prescribing such activity to the untrained population, due to a perceived risk of cardiac events. Few studies have investigated the recovery of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) after a single exercise bout, especially following vigorous exercise in healthy, young but untrained individuals. In this study, the recovery of the ANS, in particular indices of vagal activity were measured postexercise, at three intensities similar to current international recommendations for health. Thirteen individuals (six females, 22·2 ± 3·1 years) performed three 20‐min constant load tests lying supine on a modified bicycle ergometer at the following intensities: moderate (2 mmol l−1 blood lactate concentration, BLC); hard (3 mmol l−1BLC); and vigorous (4 mmol l−1BLC) as derived from a maximal test. ECG data were collected during 5‐min epochs at baseline then at: 5, 15, 30, 45 and 65‐min postexercise. Heart rate variability (HRV) analysis was performed to obtain R–R interval, standard time [root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD)] and frequency measures [natural logarithm of high (lnHF) and low frequency (lnHF)]. RMSSD, lnHF, lnLF and total power were reduced 5‐min postexercise following all three intensities (P<0·01). Decreases persisted up to 15‐min postexercise following hard and vigorous exercise only (P<0·01). In untrained young adults, parasympathetic reactivation is reduced up to 5‐min postexercise regardless of intensity, returning to baseline by 30 min even after vigorous exercise. In this population, the benefits of exercise outweigh any risks of cardiac events that may be evoked by a reduction in the influence of vagal activity.

Influences of Green Outdoors versus Indoors Environmental Settings on Psychological and Social Outcomes of Controlled Exercise

This study addressed a methodological gap by comparing psychological and social outcomes of exercise in green outdoors versus built indoors settings, whilst rigorously controlling exercise mode and intensity. The hypotheses were that greater improvements or more desirable values for directed attention, mood, perceived exertion, social interaction time, intention for future exercise behaviour and enjoyment would be associated with outdoors compared to indoors exercise. Following a baseline session, paired participants completed two conditions of 15 min of cycling on an ergometer placed outside in a natural environment and inside in a laboratory setting in a randomized, counter-balanced order. At pre- and post-exercise, directed attention was measured with the digit span backwards task, and mood was assessed with the Profile of Mood States. During the exercise session, visual and verbal interactions were recorded by means of experimenter observations. After each exercise session, participants provided self-reports of their enjoyment of the exercise, perceived exertion and intention for future exercise in the same environment. Social interaction time was significantly greater during outdoors exercise versus indoors; on average, participants engaged in three minutes more social interaction during exercise outdoors compared to indoors. Social interaction time significantly predicted intention for future exercise in the outdoors condition, but did not in the indoor condition. There was a significant time by condition interaction for directed attention. Scores worsened in the indoors condition, but improved in the outdoors condition. There was no statistically-significant time by condition interaction for mood and no significant difference between conditions for either perceived exertion or intention. Taken together, these findings show that exercise in a natural environment may promote directed attention and social interactions, which may positively influence future exercise intentions.

A Repeated Measures Experiment of School Playing Environment to Increase Physical Activity and Enhance Self-Esteem in UK School Children

School playtime provides daily opportunities for children to be active outdoors, but only makes small contributions to physical activity (PA) requirements. Natural environments facilitate unstructured PA and children report a preference for play in nature. Thus, play on the school field might encourage children to be more active during playtime. The primary aim of this study was to examine the impact of the school playing environment on childrens PA. Descriptive data and fitness were assessed in 25 children aged 8–9 years from a single primary school. Over two consecutive weeks participants were allocated to either play on the school field or playground during playtime. The order of play in the two areas was randomised and counterbalanced. Moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) was assessed during playtime on the last two days of each week using accelerometers. There was a significant interaction of environment and sex on MVPA during morning play (F(1,22) = 6.27; P<0.05; np 2 = 0.222), but not during lunch (P>0.05; np 2 = 0.060) or all of playtime combined (P>0.05; np 2 = 0.140). During morning play boys were significantly more active than girls on the playground (t(23) = 1.32; P<0.01; n2 = 0.291), but not on the field (P>0.05; n2 = 0.071). For lunch (F(1,22) = 24,11; P<0.001; np 2 = 0.523) and all of playtime combined (F(1,22) = 33.67; P<0.001; np 2 = 0.616) there was a significant effect of environment. There was also a significant main effect of sex during lunch (F(1,22) = 11.56; P<0.01; np 2 = 0.344) and all of playtime combined (F(1,22) = 12.37; P<0.01; np 2 = 0.371). MVPA was higher on the field and boys were more active than girls. Play on the field leads to increases in MVPA, particularly in girls. The promising trend for the effect of the natural environment on MVPA indicates that interventions aimed at increasing MVPA should use the natural environment and that schools should encourage greater use of their natural areas to increase PA.

Walks4work: Rationale and study design to investigate walking at lunchtime in the workplace setting

BackgroundFollowing recruitment of a private sector company, an 8 week lunchtime walking intervention was implemented to examine the effect of the intervention on modifiable cardiovascular disease risk factors, and further to see if walking environment had any further effect on the cardiovascular disease risk factors.MethodsFor phase 1 of the study participants were divided into three groups, two lunchtime walking intervention groups to walk around either an urban or natural environment twice a week during their lunch break over an 8 week period. The third group was a waiting-list control who would be invited to join the walking groups after phase 1. In phase 2 all participants were encouraged to walk during their lunch break on self-selecting routes. Health checks were completed at baseline, end of phase 1 and end of phase 2 in order to measure the impact of the intervention on cardiovascular disease risk. The primary outcome variables of heart rate and heart rate variability were measured to assess autonomic function associated with cardiovascular disease. Secondary outcome variables (Body mass index, blood pressure, fitness, autonomic response to a stressor) related to cardiovascular disease were also measured. The efficacy of the intervention in increasing physical activity was objectively monitored throughout the 8-weeks using an accelerometer device.DiscussionThe results of this study will help in developing interventions with low researcher input with high participant output that may be implemented in the workplace. If effective, this study will highlight the contribution that natural environments can make in the reduction of modifiable cardiovascular disease risk factors within the workplace.

Association between RR interval and high-frequency heart rate variability acquired during short-term, resting recordings with free and paced breathing

High-frequency (HF) oscillations in RR interval from 0.15-0.40 Hz are widely accepted as a measure of cardiac vagal outflow but the HF/RR relationship appears complex, particularly with longer RR intervals. The aim of this study was to evaluate the HF/RR interval relationship during free and paced breathing. HF power and mean RR interval length were recorded in 150 men and 120 women (mean age 34.5 +/- 11.4) during 5 min of supine rest with either free or paced (12 cycles min(-1)) breathing. Linear and quadratic models were used to assess the relationship between RR interval and the natural logarithm of HF power (lnHF). The RR interval length at which there was no further increase in lnHF was determined as the deflection point. ANCOVA was used to determine differences in the linear regression slopes for lnHF/RR with paced or free breathing. With free breathing (n = 131), the adjusted R(2) was similar between linear (15.3%) and quadratic (17.5%) fits and saturation of lnHF occurred within the recorded RR interval range (1326 ms). With paced breathing (n = 139), adjusted R(2) values were again similar between linear (22.4%) and quadratic (23.2%) fits. The deflection point was outside the range of recorded RR intervals at 1458 ms. ANCOVA showed a significant difference in the slope of the lnHF/RR regression lines between free and paced breathing. The lnHF/RR relationship is weaker when derived from between-subject recordings than from repeated within-subject samples. lnHF/RR showed evidence of saturation at approximately 45 bpm with free breathing. With paced breathing, a deflection in lnHF was found outside the recorded RR interval range ( approximately 41 bpm). Paced breathing creates a stronger lnHF/RR relationship. The slope of the lnHF/RR regression line with paced breathing is significantly different from that observed with free breathing. It appears that lnHF is a valid index of vagal outflow, except in subjects with very low heart rates. Paced breathing data collection protocols appear preferable.