Vicky J. Meretsky

PLANNED FLOODING AND COLORADO RIVER RIPARIAN TRADE‐OFFS DOWNSTREAM FROM GLEN CANYON DAM, ARIZONA

Regulated river restoration through planned flooding involves trade-offs be- tween aquatic and terrestrial components, between relict pre-dam and novel post-dam re- sources and processes, and between management of individual resources and ecosystem characteristics. We review the terrestrial (wetland and riparian) impacts of a 1274 m 3 /s test flood conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in March/April 1996, which was designed to improve understanding of sediment transport and management downstream from Glen Canyon Dam in the Colorado River ecosystem. The test flood successfully restored sandbars throughout the river corridor and was timed to prevent direct impacts to species of concern. A total of 1275 endangered Kanab ambersnail (Oxyloma haydeni kan- abensis) were translocated above the flood zone at Vaseys Paradise spring, and an estimated 10.7% of the total snail habitat and 7.7% of the total snail population were lost to the flood. The test flood scoured channel margin wetlands, including potential foraging habitats of endangered Southwestern Willow Flycatcher (Empidonax traillii extimus). It also buried ground-covering riparian vegetation under .1 m of fine sand but only slightly altered woody sandbar vegetation and some return-current channel marshes. Pre-flood control ef- forts and appropriate flood timing limited recruitment of four common nonnative perennial plant species. Slight impacts on ethnobotanical resources were detected .430 km down- stream, but those plant assemblages recovered rapidly. Careful design of planned flood hydrograph shape and seasonal timing is required to mitigate terrestrial impacts during efforts to restore essential fluvial geomorphic and aquatic habitats in regulated river eco- systems.

Motivations influencing the adoption of conservation easements.

The use of conservation easements as a conservation mechanism for private land has increased greatly in the past decade; conservation easements now protect over 15 million ha across the United States from residential and commercial development. We used a mailed survey and in-depth telephone interviews to determine factors that motivate private landowners in Iowa, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin (U.S.A.) to place conservation easements on their properties. The mailed survey asked about characteristics of landowners, their properties, and their opinions on 9 factors related to the decision to place an easement. A follow-up telephone interview was completed with 19 mail-survey participants to gain an in-depth understanding of the action and to triangulate the results with the questionnaire. Place attachment, which is a measure of personal connection to a location or property, was the greatest motivation for implementation of an easement. Results of a principal components analysis suggested contributing to the public good underlaid several of the strong motivational factors for participation. Financial reasons were the lowest ranked motivational factor; however, financial concerns may facilitate placement of an easement that would otherwise not be realized. We believe that our results may be transferable to places where land protected by easements is not dominated by traditional farming (row crops, pastures, and hay), timber harvesting, or nonextractive uses (e.g., habitat for wild animals, recreation, and protection of ecosystem services).

Cienega de Santa Clara, a remnant wetland in the Rio Colorado delta (Mexico): vegetation distribution and the effects of water flow reduction

Abstract The Cienega de Santa Clara is the largest remaining wetland in the Rio Colorado delta; it supports endangered bird and fish species. The Cienega is maintained by agricultural drainage water discharge from the USA which in the future may be diverted to the Yuma Desalting Plant. We examined the existing vegetation patterns and effects of flow disruption on vegetation using seasonal aerial and ground surveys. The Cienega was dominated by Typha domingensis and contained eight subdominant hydrophytes in addtition. The distribution of marsh plants was related to salinity and water depth within the Cienega. Disturbance in the form of burning of the Typha and grazing of cattle on the new growth had a marked effect on the status of the vegetation in accessible parts of the marsh. During 8 months of unplanned flow interruption due to the need for canal repairs, 60–70% of the marsh foliage died back. Green vegetation was confined to a low-lying geologic fault which retained water; however, Typha domingensis regenerated from dormant rhizomes following the return of canal flow. Though the vegetation proved resilient, prolonged flow reduction would unavoidably reduce the size of the wetland and its capacity to support associated wetland functions.

New Directions in Conservation for the National Wildlife Refuge System

Abstract The National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 includes the nations broadest statutory commitment to ecosystem protection: to “ensure that the biological integrity, diversity, and environmental health of the system are maintained.” The act also directs the US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) to expand the scope of conservation monitoring, assessment, and management beyond refuge boundaries to encompass surrounding landscapes. The act thus gives the FWS a leadership role in developing research and management partnerships with other agencies, organizations, and neighboring landowners. Increasing research capacity and scientific expertise, and strengthening institutional resolve to limit activities that impede the attainment of this directive, are challenges for the FWS. Success requires reexamination of existing priorities, refocused training, the acquisition of new funding and technical expertise, and creative application of those new skills to meet the laws broad mandate.

Supplemental feeding regimes for Egyptian vultures in the Negev Desert, Israel

Supplemental feeding is inereasingly used to support vulture populations threatened by declining food resources. As the practice moves from a stopgap procedure to a management technique, information is needed on the effects of variations in feeding regime on vulture behavior. We provided food to Egyptian vultures (Neophron perenopterus) in the Negev Desert, Israel, under 2 regimes. A regular feeding station (RFS) was stocked dailv with 5-10 kg of chicken carcasses, and all irregular feeding station (IFS) was stocked approximately twice monthly with 20-350 kg of livestock carcasses. At the RFS numbers peaked at 20-30 birds; flock size at the IFS peaked at 30-40 birds. Adults feeding on chickens could dominate individual carcasses and fed in higher proportions than younger birds Large carcasses and scattered scraps at the IFS could not be defended by individuals, and adults did not feed preferentially. Small, dailv food deliveries favored adults and resulted in higher proportions of flocks feeding. Large, infrequent deliveries did not favor any age class, however infrequent food deliveries may not provide sufficiently regular food for adults feeding young. Smaller competing scavengers at the RFS did not exclude Egyptian vultures from food. At the IFS, large mammals briefly escluded vultures but often improved access to food by tearing open carcasses. Eurasian griffons (Cyps fulvus) at the IFS excluded Egyptian vultures and consumed most of the available food. Eurasian griffons did not feed on chicken carcasses; hence, small carcasses can be used to feed small vulture species preferentially when species that spectalize on large carcasses are also present.

Northern Saw-Whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus) Autumn Migration Magnitude and Demographics in South-Central Indiana

Abstract Three banding stations were located in south-central Indiana (2002–07) to study migration patterns of Northern Saw-whet Owls (Aegolius acadicus). Saw-whet owl captures ranged from 59 in 2002 (1 station) to 447 in 2007 (3 stations), with 2007 an irruption year in at least one location. The proportion of hatch-year owls was 54.8% on average, but lower in 2004 (30.9%). Hatch-year owls consistently arrived 4–5 d earlier than older saw-whet owls in south-central Indiana. We used morphometric sexing techniques to classify 80% of the saw-whet owls we captured as females, and 7% as males. Encounters of birds banded at other stations indicated that most owls captured in south-central Indiana in fall had migrated around the west side of the Great Lakes. The irruption of 2007 was likely due to a large influx of saw-whet owls moving through the Ohio River Valley from eastern regions. Greatest numbers of saw-whet owl captures were associated with clear nights and relatively calm west-to-northwest winds after the passage of a cold front. For owls captured at our station and another, we calculated the average migration rate of 28.8 ± 15.8 km/d (N  =  9).

A State-Based National Network for Effective Wildlife Conservation

State wildlife conservation programs provide a strong foundation for biodiversity conservation in the United States, building on state wildlife action plans. However, states may miss the species that are at the most risk at rangewide scales, and threats such as novel diseases and climate change increasingly act at regional and national levels. Regional collaborations among states and their partners have had impressive successes, and several federal programs now incorporate state priorities. However, regional collaborations are uneven across the country, and no national counterpart exists to support efforts at that scale. A national conservation-support program could fill this gap and could work across the conservation community to identify large-scale conservation needs and support efforts to meet them. By providing important information-sharing and capacity-building services, such a program would advance collaborative conservation among the states and their partners, thus increasing both the effectiveness and the efficiency of conservation in the United States.

Digital Photography Improves Consistency and Accuracy of Bat Counts in Hibernacula

Abstract The size and distribution of measurement errors associated with major techniques for estimating numbers of hibernating bats are unstudied, although this is the principle method of enumerating several endangered bat species. However, decisions concerning the listing status of a species under the Endangered Species Act require consistent and accurate estimation of population size and trends. Recent advances in digital photography have improved the ability to produce a quantitative record of the numbers of bats in hibernacula. We surveyed clusters of Indiana bats in a hibernaculum and compared results from counts of digital photographs of clusters to results from 4 variations of visual estimation. We counted bats in photographs using Geographic Information System digitization over the photograph. Total counts from 2 sets of photographs varied by <1.5%. Nonphotographic estimation techniques varied from 76% to 142% of counts from photographs for clusters for which estimation (rather than counting) was used. Where feasible, photography can improve status and trend information for species of concern, permitting more timely and specific management actions.

Identifying the Distance of Vegetative Edge Effects Using Landsat TM Data and Geostatistical Methods

Abstract The physical and biological changes that occur at the edges of forest clearings are increasingly well described. To date, however, estimates of the distances over which edge effects occur have generally resulted from intensive fieldwork. We present a method for estimating the distance of edge influence (DEI) – and thus the amount of forest affected by edge – from remote sensing data. We couple limited field‐based information with remote‐sensing classification techniques to locate clearings. We then develop and use a new geostatistical method – point‐based semivariogram analysis – to estimate DEI. We discuss methods of selecting inputs and methods for classification, and compare global, local, and point‐based methods of estimating DEI. We also demonstrate the use of idealized versions of actual landscapes to clarify complex behavior of semivariograms. Our technique can be generalized to edges in other forest types as well as to other approximately point‐based disturbances that produce an outwardly diminishing gradient of effects.

Learning from Conservation Planning for the U.S. National Wildlife Refuges

The U.S. National Wildlife Refuge System has nearly completed its first round of unit-level, comprehensive conservation plans (CCPs) and will soon begin required revisions. Laws and policies governing refuge planning emphasize ecological integrity, landscape-scale conservation, and adaptive management. We evaluated 185 CCPs completed during 2005-2011, which cover 324 of 555 national wildlife refuges. We reviewed CCP prescriptions addressing 5 common conservation issues (habitat and game, nongame, imperiled, and invasive species) and 3 specialized topics (landscape-scale conservation, climate change, and environmental quality). Common conservation issues received prescriptions in >90% of CCPs. Specialized topics received more variable treatment. Prescriptions for aquatic connectivity, water quantity, and climate-change impacts increased over the study period. Except for climate change, direct actions were the most common type of management prescription, followed by plans or studies. Most CCPs stated a commitment to adaptive management and prescribed monitoring for common conservation objectives; other aspects of planning for adaptive management were often lacking, despite strong support for adaptive management in the conservation planning literature. To better address refuge-specific threats, we recommend that revised plans explicitly match identified refuge issues with prescriptions, particularly for under-represented concerns such as novel pests and pathogens. We recommend incorporating triggers into monitoring frameworks and specifying actions that will occur when threshold values are reached to improve support for adaptive management. Revised CCPs should better reflect work that refuges already undertake to extend conservation objectives beyond their borders and better engage with regional conservation efforts to continue this work. More thorough landscape-scale threat assessments and explicit prioritization of planned actions would further improve conservation effectiveness. Excellent examples of all recommended practices exist within the CCPs we examined; sharing best planning practices would improve planning efficiency within the refuge system.