Vishal Diwan

Omega-3 fatty acids and metabolic syndrome: Effects and emerging mechanisms of action

Epidemiological, human, animal, and cell culture studies show that n-3 fatty acids, especially α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), reduce the risk factors of cardiovascular diseases. EPA and DHA, rather than ALA, have been the focus of research on the n-3 fatty acids, probably due to the relatively inefficient conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA in rodents and humans. This review will assess our current understanding of the effects and potential mechanisms of actions of individual n-3 fatty acids on multiple risk factors of metabolic syndrome. Evidence for pharmacological responses and the mechanism of action of each of the n-3 fatty acid trio will be discussed for the major risk factors of metabolic syndrome, especially adiposity, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance and diabetes, hypertension, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Metabolism of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids as well as the interactions of n-3 fatty acids with nutrients, gene expression, and disease states will be addressed to provide a rationale for the use of n-3 fatty acids to reduce the risk factors of metabolic syndrome.

High-carbohydrate high-fat diet–induced metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular remodeling in rats.

The prevalence of metabolic syndrome including central obesity, insulin resistance, impaired glucose tolerance, hypertension, and dyslipidemia is increasing. Development of adequate therapy for metabolic syndrome requires an animal model that mimics the human disease state. Therefore, we have characterized the metabolic, cardiovascular, hepatic, renal, and pancreatic changes in male Wistar rats (8-9 weeks old) fed on a high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet including condensed milk (39.5%), beef tallow (20%), and fructose (17.5%) together with 25% fructose in drinking water; control rats were fed a cornstarch diet. During 16 weeks on this diet, rats showed progressive increases in body weight, energy intake, abdominal fat deposition, and abdominal circumference along with impaired glucose tolerance, dyslipidemia, hyperinsulinemia, and increased plasma leptin and malondialdehyde concentrations. Cardiovascular signs included increased systolic blood pressure and endothelial dysfunction together with inflammation, fibrosis, hypertrophy, increased stiffness, and delayed repolarization in the left ventricle of the heart. The liver showed increased wet weight, fat deposition, inflammation, and fibrosis with increased plasma activity of liver enzymes. The kidneys showed inflammation and fibrosis, whereas the pancreas showed increased islet size. In comparison with other models of diabetes and obesity, this diet-induced model more closely mimics the changes observed in human metabolic syndrome.

Adenine-induced chronic kidney and cardiovascular damage in rats

BACKGROUND The incidence of human chronic kidney failure with associated cardiovascular disease is increasing. Kidney damage can be induced in rats by chronic dietary adenine intake. We have used this intervention to investigate the development of concurrent kidney and cardiovascular injury. METHODS Dose-ranging studies were undertaken on male Wistar rats by feeding with adenine (0.075%, 0.25%, 0.5% or 0.75%) for up to 16weeks. 0.075% adenine produced minimal changes while 0.5% or 0.75% adenine produced marked kidney damage; 0.25% adenine was chosen for further studies since it produced moderate kidney and cardiovascular damage. In rats fed 0.25% adenine, renal function (blood urea nitrogen (BUN), plasma creatinine, and their clearances; plasma uric acid; proteinuria); renal structure (collagen, apoptosis, inflammation, glomerulopathy); and protein expression of markers for oxidative stress (HO-1), fibrosis (TGF-β, α-SMA) and inflammation (TNF-α, NF-κB p52, NF-κB p50, PLA2 and ED1) were measured, along with cardiovascular parameters (blood pressure, left ventricular stiffness, vascular responses). Allopurinol (25mg/kg/day, final 8weeks only) was administered to determine the role of uric acid. RESULTS 0.25% adenine diet induced characteristics of human chronic kidney disease at 16weeks including increased BUN (0.25% adenine 56.5±5.4*; control 6.2±0.6mmol/L; *=p<0.05) and plasma creatinine (0.25% adenine 268±23*; control 41.9±2.8μg/L), decreased BUN and creatinine clearances; proteinuria; increased chronic inflammation as macrophage and myofibroblast infiltration, increased collagen deposition, tubular atrophy, apoptosis, and TNF-α and TGF-β expression; glomerulopathy as increased podocyte desmin expression; increased HO-1 expression; and increased plasma uric acid. Cardiovascular changes included increased ventricular fibrosis, systolic blood pressure and left ventricular stiffness, and impaired vascular responses. Allopurinol decreased plasma uric acid concentrations and reversed the adenine-induced kidney and cardiovascular changes. CONCLUSION Administration of 0.25% adenine to rats induced chronic kidney and cardiovascular disease. Increased uric acid production is the most likely cause since allopurinol attenuated this damage.

Possible involvement of erythropoietin in remote renal preconditioning-induced cardioprotection in rats.

Remote preconditioning is a unique phenomenon in which brief episodes of ischemia and reperfusion to remote organs protect the target organ against sustained ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced injury. Protective effects of remote renal preconditioning are well established in the heart, but their mechanisms still remain to be elucidated. Hence, the present study was designed to investigate the possible involvement of erythropoietin in remote renal preconditioning (RRPC)-induced cardioprotection in rats. RRPC was performed by 4 episodes of 5 min renal artery occlusion followed by 5 min reperfusion. Gentamicin (100 mg/kg intraperitoneal) was administered for 6 days for induction of renal failure. Isolated rat hearts were perfused on Langendorff apparatus and were subjected to global ischemia for 30 min ischemia followed by 120 min reperfusion. The levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase (CK) were measured in coronary effluent to assess the degree of myocardial injury. Extent of myocardial infarct size and coronary flow rate was also measured. RRPC prevented I/R-induced myocardial injury and produced cardioprotective effects. However, cardioprotective effects of RRPC were not observed in renal failure rats, indicating the protective role of humoral factor was released from functional kidneys. In renal failure rats, exogenous administration of rhEPO (5000 IU/kg intraperitoneal) with RRPC restored the cardioprotective effects of later. These results implicate that RRPC-induced cardioprotective effects may be mediated through release of erythropoietin from kidney.

Gender differences in adenine-induced chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular complications in rats

Gender contributes to differences in incidence and progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and associated cardiovascular disease. To induce kidney damage in male and female Wistar rats (n = 12/group), a 0.25% adenine diet for 16 wk was used. Kidney function (blood urea nitrogen, plasma creatinine, proteinuria) and structure (glomerular damage, tubulointerstitial atrophy, fibrosis, inflammation); cardiovascular function (blood pressure, ventricular stiffness, vascular responses, echocardiography) and structure (cardiac fibrosis); plasma testosterone and estrogen concentrations; and protein expression for oxidative stress [heme oxygenase-1, inflammation (TNF-α), fibrosis (transforming growth factor-β), ERK1/2, and estrogen receptor-α (ER-α)] were compared in males and females. Adenine-fed females had less decline in kidney function than adenine-fed males, although kidney atrophy, inflammation, and fibrosis were similar. Plasma estrogen concentrations increased and plasma testosterone concentrations decreased in adenine-fed males, with smaller changes in females. CKD-associated molecular changes in kidneys were more pronounced in males than females except for expression of ER-α in the kidney, which was completely suppressed in adenine-fed males but unchanged in adenine-fed females. Both genders showed increased blood pressure, ventricular stiffness, and cardiac fibrosis with the adenine diet. Cardiovascular changes with adenine were similar in males and females, except males developed concentric, and females eccentric cardiac hypertrophy. In hearts from adenine-fed male and female rats, expression of ER-α and activation of the ERK1/2 pathway were increased, in part explaining changes in cardiac hypertrophy. In summary, adenine-induced kidney damage may be increased in males due to the suppression of ER-α.

Glibenclamide improves kidney and heart structure and function in the adenine-diet model of chronic kidney disease

The development of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and associated cardiovascular disease involves free radical damage and inflammation. Addition of adenine to the diet induces inflammation followed by CKD and cardiovascular disease. NOD-like receptor protein-3 (NLRP-3) is pro-inflammatory in the kidney; glibenclamide inhibits production of NLRP-3. Male Wistar rats were fed either control rat food or adenine (0.25%) in this food for 16 weeks. Glibenclamide (10 mg/kg/day) was administered to two groups with and without adenine for the final 8 weeks. Kidney function (blood urea nitrogen/BUN, plasma creatinine/PCr, plasma uric acid, proteinuria), kidney structure (fibrosis, inflammation), cardiovascular parameters (blood pressure, left ventricular stiffness, vascular responses and echocardiography) and protein expression of markers for oxidative stress (HO-1), and inflammation (TNF-α, NLRP-3) were assessed. In adenine-fed rats, glibenclamide decreased BUN (controls: 6±0.6; adenine: 56.6±5.4; adenine+glibenclamide: 19.4±2.7 mmol/L), PCr (controls: 42±2.8; adenine: 268±23; adenine+glibenclamide: 81±10 μmol/L), proteinuria (controls: 150±7.4; adenine: 303±19; adenine+glibenclamide: 220±13 μmol/L) (all p<0.05). Glibenclamide decreased infiltration of chronic inflammatory cells, fibrosis, tubular damage and expression of HO-1, TNF-α and NLRP-3 in the kidney. Glibenclamide did not alter plasma uric acid concentrations (controls: 38±1; adenine: 63±4; adenine+glibenclamide: 69±14 μmol/L). Cardiovascular changes included decreased systolic blood pressure and improved vascular responses although cardiac fibrosis, left ventricular stiffness and hypertrophy were not reduced. Glibenclamide improved kidney structure and function in CKD and decreased some cardiovascular parameters. Inflammatory markers and cell populations were attenuated by glibenclamide in kidneys.

Adenine-induced chronic kidney disease in rats

Many animal models have been developed to study the causes and treatments of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in humans, an insidious disease resulting from kidney injury and characterized by persistent functional decline for more than 3 months, with or without evidence of structural deficit. The eventual outcome of CKD may be end‐stage kidney disease (ESKD), where patients need dialysis or transplantation to survive. Cardiovascular disease is accelerated in patients with CKD and contributes to increased mortality, with the relationship between CKD and cardiovascular disease being bi‐directional. Most animal models do not mimic the complexity of the human disease as many do not develop CKD‐associated cardiovascular disease. The adenine diet model of CKD in rodents is an exception. The original adenine diet model produced rapid‐onset kidney disease with extensive tubulointerstitial fibrosis, tubular atrophy, crystal formation and marked vessel calcification. Since then, lower adenine intake in rats has been found to induce slowly progressive kidney damage and cardiovascular disease. These chronic adenine diet models allow the characterization of relatively stable kidney and cardiovascular disease, similar to CKD in humans. In addition, interventions for reversal can be tested. Here the key features of the adenine diet model of CKD are noted, along with some limitations of other available models. In summary, the data presented here support the use of chronic low‐dose adenine diet in rats as an easy and effective model for understanding human CKD, especially the links with cardiovascular disease, and developing potential therapeutic interventions.