Vladimir I. Chefer

Delta-Opioid Receptor Antagonists Prevent Sensitization to the Conditioned Rewarding Effects of Morphine

BACKGROUND Functional interactions between mu- and delta-opioid receptors (MOPr and DOPr, respectively) are implicated in morphine tolerance and dependence. The contribution of DOPr to the conditioned rewarding effects of morphine and the enhanced conditioned response that occurs after repeated morphine administration is unknown. This issue was addressed with the conditioned place preference procedure (CPP). METHODS Rats received home cage injections of saline or morphine (5.0 mg/kg/day x 5 days) before conditioning. For sensitization studies, DOPr antagonists (DOPr1/2: naltrindole, DOPr2: naltriben, DOPr1: 7-benzylidenenaltrexone) were administered before morphine injections. Conditioning sessions (2 morphine; 2 saline) commenced 3 days later. To assess the influence of acute DOPr blockade on the conditioning of morphine reward in naïve animals, 3 morphine and 3 saline conditioning sessions were employed. Antagonists were administered before morphine conditioning sessions. RESULTS Morphine was ineffective as a conditioning stimulus after two conditioning sessions in naïve rats. However, doses > or = 3.0 mg/kg produced significant CPP in morphine pre-exposed rats, confirming that sensitization develops to the conditioned rewarding effects of morphine. In animals that received morphine pre-exposure with naltrindole or naltriben but not 7-benzylidenenaltrexone, sensitization was prevented. No attenuation of morphine CPP was observed in animals that received DOPr antagonists acutely, before conditioning sessions. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate a critical role of DOPr systems in mediating sensitization to the conditioned rewarding effects of morphine. The efficacy of naltrindole and naltriben in preventing the enhanced response to morphine suggest the specific involvement of DOPr2 in the sensitization process.

Basal and morphine-evoked dopaminergic neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens of MOR- and DOR-knockout mice

Conventional and no net flux microdialysis were used to quantify basal and morphine‐induced extracellular dopamine (DA) levels and the basal extraction fraction, which provides an estimate of the rate of DA uptake, in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) of wild‐type mice and those with a constitutive deletion of mu (MOR)‐ or delta (DOR)‐opioid receptors. Locomotor activity was assessed in these same animals. No difference between genotypes in basal dialysate DA levels was seen. No net flux studies revealed significant decreases in the DA extraction fraction in both MOR‐ and DOR‐knockout mice, indicating decreased basal DA uptake in both genotypes. Extracellular DA, however, was unchanged. Because extracellular neurotransmitter levels are determined by the dynamics of both release and uptake, these findings provide suggestive evidence that basal DA release is decreased in mutant mice. Systemic administration of morphine significantly increased locomotor activity and dialysate DA levels in wild‐type mice. MOR‐knockout mice failed to exhibit a behavioural response to morphine. The ability of morphine to increase DA levels, however, was reduced but not prevented. No alteration in the effects of morphine was observed in DOR‐knockout mice. These data provide genetic evidence for the existence of tonically active MOR and DOR systems that modulate basal DA neurotransmission in the NAc. Furthermore, they demonstrate that in contrast to the locomotor‐activating effects of morphine, a small component of morphine‐evoked DA release occurs independently of MOR activation.

Kappa Opioid Receptors on Dopaminergic Neurons Are Necessary for Kappa-Mediated Place Aversion

Kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) agonists have dysphoric properties in humans and are aversive in rodents. This has been attributed to the activation of KORs within the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system. However, the role of DA in KOR-mediated aversion and stress remains divisive as recent studies have suggested that activation of KORs on serotonergic neurons may be sufficient to mediate aversive behaviors. To address this question, we used conditional knock-out (KO) mice with KORs deleted on DA neurons (DATCre/wt/KORloxp/loxp, or DATCre-KOR KO). In agreement with previous findings, control mice (DATCre/wt/KORwt/wt or WT) showed conditioned place aversion (CPA) to the systemically administered KOR agonist U69,593. In contrast, DATCre-KOR KO mice did not exhibit CPA with this same agonist. In addition, in vivo microdialysis showed that systemic U69,593 decreased overflow of DA in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) in WT mice, but had no effect in DATCre-KOR KO mice. Intra- ventral tegmental area (VTA) delivery of KORs using an adeno-associated viral gene construct, resulted in phenotypic rescue of the KOR-mediated NAc DA response and aversive behavior in DATCre-KOR KO animals. These results provide evidence that KORs on VTA DA neurons are necessary to mediate KOR-mediated aversive behavior. Therefore, our data, along with recent findings, suggest that the neuronal mechanisms of KOR-mediated aversive behavior may include both dopaminergic and serotonergic components.

Paradoxical effects of prodynorphin gene deletion on basal and cocaine‐evoked dopaminergic neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens

Quantitative and conventional microdialysis were used to investigate the effects of constitutive deletion of the prodynorphin gene on basal dopamine (DA) dynamics in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and the responsiveness of DA neurons to an acute cocaine challenge. Saline‐ and cocaine‐evoked locomotor activity were also assessed. Quantitative microdialysis revealed that basal extracellular DA levels were decreased, while the DA extraction fraction, an indirect measure of DA uptake, was unchanged in dynorphin (DYN) knockout (KO) mice. The ability of cocaine to increase NAc DA levels was reduced in KO. Similarly, cocaine‐evoked locomotor activity was decreased in KO. The selective kappa opioid receptor agonist U‐69593 decreased NAc dialysate DA levels in wildtype mice and this effect was enhanced in KO. Administration of the selective kappa opioid receptor (KOPr) antagonist nor‐binaltorphimine to KO mice attenuated the decrease in cocaine‐induced DA levels. However, it was ineffective in altering the decreased locomotor response to cocaine. These studies demonstrate that constitutive deletion of prodynorphin is associated with a reduction of extracellular NAc DA levels and a decreased responsiveness to acute cocaine. Data regarding the effects of U‐69593 and nor‐binaltorphimine in KO suggest that the kappa opioid receptor is up‐regulated as a consequence of prodynorphin gene deletion and that this adaptation underlies the decrease in basal DA dynamics and cocaine‐evoked DA levels observed in DYN KO mice. These findings suggest that the phenotype of DYN KO mice is not solely due to loss of endogenous opioid peptide but also reflects developmental compensations that occur at the level of the opioid receptor.

Repeated moderate-dose ethanol bouts impair cognitive function in Wistar rats.

The effects of repeated, intermittent administration of a moderate dose of ethanol (3.4 g/kg/day × 6 days, intragastrically via gavages) on cognitive function were examined in male Wistar rats. No significant differences in weight gain between the ethanol‐ and water‐treated rats were found. Analysis of physical dependence revealed no signs of spontaneous withdrawal, whereas withdrawal signs exacerbated by Ro15‐4513, an inverse benzodiazepine agonist, were apparent 5 hours but not 24 hours after the cessation of ethanol treatment. Spatial learning and memory, as assessed in the Barnes maze, were impaired 3–6 days following the treatment but recovered by the 11th–14th days. Reversal learning, however, was impaired throughout the 2‐week observation period. Thus, bouts of moderate‐dose ethanol administration transiently impair spatial learning and memory, and promote cognitive inflexibility. The employed ethanol exposure paradigm may provide a model of human cognitive deficits associated with alcohol binge drinking.

Dopamine in the Dorsal Hippocampus Impairs the Late Consolidation of Cocaine-Associated Memory

Cocaine is thought to be addictive because it elevates dopamine levels in the striatum, reinforcing drug-seeking habits. Cocaine also elevates dopamine levels in the hippocampus, a structure involved in contextual conditioning as well as in reward function. Hippocampal dopamine promotes the late phase of consolidation of an aversive step-down avoidance memory. Here, we examined the role of hippocampal dopamine function in the persistence of the conditioned increase in preference for a cocaine-associated compartment. Blocking dorsal hippocampal D1-type receptors (D1Rs) but not D2-type receptors (D2Rs) 12 h after a single training trial extended persistence of the normally short-lived memory; conversely, a general and a specific phospholipase C-coupled D1R agonist (but not a D2R or adenylyl cyclase-coupled D1R agonist) decreased the persistence of the normally long-lived memory established by three-trial training. These effects of D1 agents were opposite to those previously established in a step-down avoidance task, and were here also found to be opposite to those in a lithium chloride-conditioned avoidance task. After returning to normal following cocaine injection, dopamine levels in the dorsal hippocampus were found elevated again at the time when dopamine antagonists and agonists were effective: between 13 and 17 h after cocaine injection. These findings confirm that, long after the making of a cocaine–place association, hippocampal activity modulates memory consolidation for that association via a dopamine-dependent mechanism. They suggest a dynamic role for dorsal hippocampal dopamine in this late-phase memory consolidation and, unexpectedly, differential roles for late consolidation of memories for places that induce approach or withdrawal because of a drug association.

Basolateral Amygdala-Driven Augmentation of Medial Prefrontal Cortex GABAergic Neurotransmission in Response to Environmental Stimuli Associated with Cocaine Administration

Basolateral amygdala (BLA) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) interactions have been implicated in cue-elicited craving and drug seeking. However, the neurochemical mechanisms underlying drug/environment associations are ill-defined. We used in vivo microdialysis and pharmacological inactivation techniques to identify alterations in mPFC glutamate (GLU) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transmission in response to cues previously associated with experimenter-administered cocaine (COC) and the BLA contribution to these effects. Rats received alternate day injections of COC and saline (SAL) paired with a distinct environment for 6 days. Behavioral, neurochemical and immunohistochemical studies were conducted, in drug-free animals, 24 h after the last conditioning session. Animals exposed to a COC-paired environment demonstrated an augmented locomotor activity (LMA) relative to those exposed to the SAL-paired environment. mPFC GABA neurotransmission in the COC-paired environment was significantly increased, whereas GLU overflow was unaltered. Dual labeling of cFos and glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 immunoreactivity in mPFC neurons revealed significantly greater colocalization of these proteins following exposure to the COC-associated environment (CAE) relative to pseudo-conditioned rats or rats exposed to the SAL-associated environment indicating that the conditioned neurochemical response to the COC-paired environment is associated with activation of intrinsic mPFC GABA neurons. BLA inactivation prevented the increase in LMA and the augmentation of mPFC GABA transmission produced by cue exposure. Intra-mPFC application of the AMPA/KA receptor antagonist, NBQX, produced similar effects. These findings indicate that exposure to a CAE increases mPFC GABA transmission by enhancing excitatory drive from the BLA and activation of AMPA/KA receptors on mPFC GABA neurons.

Opioid Modulation of Psychomotor Stimulant Effects

The acute administration of psychomotor stimulants, such as cocaine and amphetamine, produce behavioral activation in humans and increased locomotor activity in laboratory animals. These agents are also self-administered by various species by virtue of their reinforcing effects. It is generally accepted that these actions results, at least in part, from an increase in dopaminergic (DAergic) neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a terminal projection region of dopamine (DA) neurons comprising the mesocorticolimbic system (1). Cocaine increases extracellular DA concentrations by binding to the DA transporter and inhibiting the uptake of DA from the synaptic cleft, whereas amphetamine causes a reversal of the DA transporter and increases DA release (2,3).