W. Robert Houston

Third Response to “The Teacher as a Service Professional,” by Donald A. Myers

It has been generally accepted that teaching does not meet the criteria of a profession, at least as exemplified by the more mature professions of medicine and law (Abbott, 1988; Darling-Hammond & Youngs, 2002; Etzioni, 1969; Howsam, Corrigan, Denemark, & Nash, 1976). Teaching is most often referred to as a semiprofession; Myers’s (2008 [this issue]) definition of teaching as a service profession provides a different perspective. His conclusion is based on 13 criteria and the rationales demonstrating that teaching is not a profession, although it does have service components. The criteria generally identify static rather than dynamic indicators, and although interesting, neither provide direction for improving teaching, nor do they apply uniformly to all teachers. The real issue is not one of classification or taxonomic analysis or whether teachers are semiprofessionals or service professionals. Rather, the question is, should teachers be defined and treated as professionals and, if so, what directions for change are appropriate and potentially effective? As individuals and as groups, humans tend to either resist change or accept change yet seek a new equilibrium that approximates the old. Changing from one status to another, such as from a semiprofessional to professional, is complex and seldom occurs. Institutions such as teacher education programs and universities make only minor adjustments, unless pressed to do so by critical circumstances. The purpose of teaching defines it as a potential profession. “Teaching is concerned with one area of societal need or hctionprofessional intervention to enhance learning in a variety of instructional settings” (Howsam et al., 1976, p. 10). The same description can apply to physicians, whose intervention is designed to enhance health and well-being. Although teaching has remained a semiprofession or service profession for the past Century, medicine has evolved into a mature profession. In considering whether teaching is or should be a profession, a semiprofession, or a service profession, it may be instructive to think back a hundred years to the era of the Flexner (1910) report, which changed medicine to a true profession.

The status of competency‐based education: an American report

Two movements in American education are referred to as competency‐based education (CBE). The purpose of the first is to protect traditional symbols of achievement such as high school diplomas and teaching certificates. At least thirty‐three states have mandated standards for high school graduation, while others are implementing basic state‐regulated tests for initial teacher certification. The second movement builds on basic concepts of instruction and learning theory. It emphasizes objectives, the importance of performance by practitioners, and learner progress based on demonstrated competence. Both movements appear to be growing, although the second is such an accepted part of preparation programmes that less is being written about it today than five years ago.

Teachers in History

were almost entirely men. That has changed in the last 100 years; only 30% of teachers are males, and those teach primarily in secondary schools. The public’s appraisal of teachers has reflected their perception of the relevance and effectiveness of teachers’ contribution to the future of society. While never well paid, in some periods of history, teachers have been highly honored and respected, while at other times, scorned for their ineffectiveness – a roller-coaster ride with crests and valleys that ushered in new modes of education. Teachers have been held accountable by those funding them. In ancient Athens, teachers were accountable to the parents of children they were tutoring; monks and priests were accountable to the church in the middle ages; teachers in America by a school board representing their communities. The state and federal governments are increasingly holding schools and teachers accountable for student achievement through legislation, such as No Child Left Behind (2001). While the specific regulations will be changed in future years, the trend toward accountability for student learning is likely to define teacher competence, characteristics, and compensation for years to come. Throughout history, teachers and teaching have tended to reflect the culture and needs of the society in which they were located. In Athens, boys were taught to be productive citizens while in Sparta, the emphasis was on military prowess; Chinese education emphasized the literature of the great philosophers Confucius and Lao-tse. During the Middle Ages the emphasis was on promulgating religious ideals, and in twenty-first century America, content knowledge and skills have become paramount. Education was and is inseparable from culture and its historic period, is deeply buried in the technology of that period, and is radically transformed when that culture changes. Expectations of teachers reflect their culture – the extent of their knowledge and skills, their status in the community, and their moral dispositions. In different centuries and different environments, teachers had strong military experience, dexterous writing skills, were philosophically oriented, or exhibited a broad knowledge of history or mathematics. Some were required to be priests or novices training for the priesthood, others male, and others slaves or poor but educated (Houston, 1990). TEACHERS IN HISTORY

Objectives for Prospective Elementary Teachers of Mathematics: A Developmental Process

New curriculum programs, technological instructional devices, team teaching, and other organizational procedures are radically changing the role and function of the elementary teacher. The preparation of prospective teachers must undergo careful study, experimentation, and revision if it is to keep pace with these developments. Viable teacher education programs to meet the challenges of the future must include three aspects: objectives stated in performance terminology, teaching-learning units to implement these objectives, and evaluative instruments to assess the

An ethnographic approach to conducting educational research

Ray C. Rist. The Invisible Children: School Integration in American Society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1978. 278 pp.