Walter Wehrmeyer

Environmental indicators for business: a review of the literature and standardisation methods

Abstract This paper reviews the existing literature on environmental performance indicators as they relate to private sector organisations, followed by a basic classification of ways in which environmental data are being standardised for use in indicators. It was found that the majority of standardisation schemes for environmental information fall into one of five categories, namely standardised using economic criteria, physical impact categories (such as global warming potential), linear programming methods (such as productive efficiency), economic valuation methods or as part of business management review processes. The paper concludes that environmental data, once normalised, should be used in a diversity of indicators that are tailored to the information needs of the data users and that, as long as normalisation of data is kept separate from aggregation and standardisation, many different indicators can be developed based on a comparatively small dataset.

Success in integrating conservation and development? A study from Zambia

Over the past decade, Zambia, like several other Southern African countries, has introduced community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) projects in several rural areas. These initiatives attempt to combine both conservation and development initiatives into an integrated approach, aimed at promoting rural development-based on natural resources as well as encouraging conservation awareness. This critical review examines the impact of the Luangwa Integrated Resource Development Project (LIRDP) at the community level. The research suggests that LIRDP has generally failed to achieve its conservation and development objectives and that the program has achieved few community benefits. The underlying causes of the projects shortcomings are discussed and corrective policy is suggested. By placing the survey findings into the wider debate about community-based conservation, the research has implications for rural development as well as community-based natural resource management.

Industrial constructions of publics and public knowledge: a qualitative investigation of practice in the UK chemicals industry

While the rhetoric of public engagement is increasingly commonplace within industry, there has been little research that examines how lay knowledge is conceptualized and whether it is really used within companies. Using the chemicals sector as an example, this paper explores how companies conceive of publics and “public knowledge,” and how this relates to modes of engagement/communication with them. Drawing on qualitative empirical research in four companies, we demonstrate that the public for industry are primarily conceived as “consumers” and “neighbours,” having concerns that should be allayed rather than as groups with knowledge meriting engagement. We conclude by highlighting the dissonance between current advocacy of engagement and the discourses and practices prevalent within industry, and highlight the need for more realistic strategies for industry/public engagement.

The impact of regulation and policy on radical eco‐innovation: The need for a new understanding

Purpose – This paper aims to review how current policy instruments drive (or not) environmental innovation and, by doing so, to reinvestigate the relationship between innovation and regulation.Design/methodology/approach – A comprehensive literature review on innovation and environmental regulation created a theoretical foundation of the paper. Using the grounded theory, a model was developed and evaluated using interviews. This is a timely topic as the new shape of recent environmental regulation appears to be fairly strict. A new model is presented to encapsulate highly dynamic interaction of environmental innovation and regulation to provide results that reflect on the present innovation behaviour and its implications.Findings – The model highlights various diffusion pathways that are triggered by the main three drivers of innovation namely government (regulation), market (competition and cost) and technology which has the possibility of an autonomous diffusion.Research limitations/implications – The e...

Evaluating the Sustainability of Brownfield Redevelopment Projects The Redevelopment Assessment Framework (RAF)

Redevelopment of brownfield land is regarded as an essential component of the achievement of sustainable urban regeneration, and is thus enshrined in a number of key urban policy frameworks (DETR 2000; ODPM 2004a). Brownfield redevelopment is considered to be de facto sustainable and presented as a headline sustainability indicator (DETR 1999). However, many examples exist where redevelopment of brownfield sites has not been sustainable, as it failed to assess the environmental, social, economic and physical impacts holistically, as well as to consider the long-term impacts of brownfield redevelopment projects (BRPs) in general. It is therefore important to develop and implement a Redevelopment Assessment Framework (RAF), that addresses sustainability throughout a site’s life cycle of land use. Such a framework has been developed, and is discussed here. The RAF utilises sustainability indicators, while taking into account relevant existing UK planning evaluation processes and other sources of information, thus making it applicable in practice. The RAF embodies a participatory approach which offers greater communication and understanding between relevant stakeholders, and therefore also offers educational and communications benefits. A description of the RAF, a critical analysis of its intended use, and a discussion of benefits and potential barriers, are provided below.

Measuring environmental performance for industry: from legitimacy to sustainability and biodiversity?

In this paper, we argue that environmental business performance indicators are substantially and qualitatively different to sustainable development indicators and thus require different approaches in terms of public consultation, scope of measurement, time scale and range of issues covered. It does so by first reviewing some developments within environmental performance indicators for industry and, after providing a definition of sustainable development, it argues for the necessity of including SDIs in business in a way that reflects the fundamentally different nature of SDIs in comparison to environmental performance indicators for industry. It exemplifies the differences by focusing on one often-missing aspect - Biological Diversity.

Stakeholder Mapping of CSR in Switzerland

Purpose - – This paper aims to investigate, using stakeholder map methodology, showing power, urgency, legitimacy and concerns of different actors, the current state of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in Switzerland. Previous research on CSR in Europe has made few attempts to identify stakeholders and their contribution to this topic. Design/methodology/approach - – To derive this map, publicly available documents were explored, augmented by 27 interviews with key stakeholders (consumers, media, government, trade unions, non-profit organisations [NPOs], banks, certifiers and consultants) and management of different companies (multinational enterprises [MNEs], small- and medium-sized enterprises [SMEs] and large national companies). Using MAXQDA, the quantified codes given for power, legitimacy and urgency were triangulated between self-reporting, external assessments and statements from publicly available documents and subsequently transferred into stakeholder priorities or, in other words, into positions in the map. Further, the codes given in the interviews for different CSR interests and the results from the document analysis were linked between stakeholders. The identified concerns and priorities were quantitatively analysed in regard to centrality and salience using VennMaker. Findings - – The paper identified SMEs, MNEs and cooperating NPOs as being the most significant stakeholders, in that order. CSR is, therefore, not driven primarily by regulators, market pressure or customers. Further network parameters substantiated the importance of SMEs while following an unconventionally informal and idiosyncratic CSR approach. Hence, insights into these ethics-driven, unformalised business models that pursue broader responsibility based on trust, traditional values, regional anchors and the willingness to “give something back” were formed. Examples of this strong CSR habit include democratic decisions and abolished hierarchies, handshake instead of formal contracts and transparency in all respects (e.g. performance indicators, salaries and bonuses). Research limitations/implications - – In total, 27 interviews as primary data that supplements publicly available documents are clearly only indicative. Practical implications - – The research found an innovative, vibrant and practical CSR model that is emerging for reasons other than conventional CSR agendas that are supposed to evolve. In fact, the stakeholder map and the CSR practices may point at a very different role businesses have adopted in Switzerland. Such models offer a useful, heuristic evaluation of the contribution of formal management systems (e.g. as could be found in MNEs) in comparison to the unformalised SME business conduct. Originality/value - – A rarely reported and astonishing feature of many of the very radical SME practices found in this study is that their link to commercial strategies was, in most cases, not seen. However, SMEs are neither the “poor relative” nor the abridged version of CSR, but are manifesting CSR as a Swiss set of values that fits the societal culture and the visionary goals of SME owners/managers and governs how a sustainably responsible company should behave. Hence, as a new stance and argument within CSR-related research, this paper concludes that “informal” does not mean “weak”. This paper covers a myriad of management fields, e.g. CSR as strategic tool in business ethics; stakeholder and network management; decision-making; and further theoretical frameworks, such as transaction cost and social capital theory. In other words, this research closes scientific gaps by at once applying quantitative as well as qualitative methods and by merging, for the first time, network methodology with CSR and stakeholder research.

Sustainable development management systems in global business organizations

Purpose - This paper seeks to identify a requirement for a new sustainable development management system (SMS) model for global business organizations (GBOs) and proposes some essential features for such a model. Design/methodology/approach - The concept is developed in four stages. First, a definition of a GBO is developed, after reviewing existing definitions and identifying their limitations. The characteristics of GBOs are reviewed, with emphasis on their implications for the management of sustainability programmes. A review of SMS literature and of existing SMS codes and standards has been made, and the limitations of existing SMSs are critically reviewed. Drawing on this three-part analysis, a new model of an SMS suitable for use in GBOs is described. Findings - Existing definitions of global business organizations are inadequate. Existing sustainability management systems standards and codes do not meet the requirements of global businesses (or indeed of other, regional businesses) in several respects. Originality/value - The paper shows that there are special requirements for SMSs in GBOs, and that these are not met by any of the existing models or proposals in the literature. The paper proposes a new model, which combines best-practice from existing literature with new features.

The role and effectiveness of continuing education training courses offered by higher education institutions in furthering the implementation of sustainable development

Purpose – To investigate the effectiveness of one‐off short continuing adult education courses for expanding the penetration of sustainable development education beyond current tertiary students.Design/methodology/approach – Pre‐ and post‐course questionnaires are used to evaluate the effectiveness of a series of short training courses on environment and sustainability issues conducted by the Centre for Environmental Strategy for a UK government department.Findings – These short continuing education courses were effective at meeting their specific aims of increasing awareness and understanding of sustainability issues, with longer courses being more beneficial and providing qualitatively different experiences. Learning on sustainable development was maximised by overtly drawing on the collective past learning experiences and knowledge of participants though carefully facilitated discussion that encourages the sharing of and building upon this knowledge base.Practical implications – If the training effecti...

CSR Mapping: Swiss Stakeholder Salience, Concerns, and Ethics

Previous research on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in Switzerland has made few attempts to identify actual and potential stakeholders and their diverging contributions to this topic.Using stakeholder map methodology, showing power, urgency, legitimacy, and concerns of different actors, the paper investigates the current state of Swiss CSR. To derive this map, publicly available documents were explored, augmented by 27 interviews with key stakeholders (consumers, media, government, trade unions, Non-Profit Organisations (NPOs), banks, certifiers, and consultants) and management of different companies (Multinational Enterprises (MNEs), Small- and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs), and large national companies).Using MAXQDA, the quantified codes given for power, legitimacy, and urgency were transferred into stakeholder priorities or, in other words, into positions in the map. Further, the codes given in the interviews for different CSR interests and the results from the document analysis were linked between stakeholders. The identified concerns and priorities were quantitatively analysed in regard to centrality and salience using VennMaker.The paper found SMEs, MNEs, and cooperating NPOs as being the most significant stakeholders. Swiss CSR is therefore not primarily driven by regulators, market pressure, or customers. Further network parameters substantiated the importance of SMEs while following an unconventionally informal, but innovative, vibrant, and practical CSR approach, emerging for reasons alter than conventional agendas are supposed to evolve. In fact, the findings may point at a very different and highly sophisticated role businesses have adopted in Switzerland, manifesting in democratic decisions and abolished hierarchies, handshakes instead of formal contracts, and transparency in all respects (e.g. performance indicators, salaries, and bonuses).Hence, as a new stance and argument within CSR related research, this paper concludes that “informal” does not mean “weak”.