Wen-Chin Li

An extension of the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System for use in open systems

The Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS), based upon Reasons model of human error in an organisational context, is currently the most widely used human factors accident analysis framework. However, it has been criticised for merely categorising accident data rather than analysing it. Previous research has established statistical associations between the levels and categories within HFACS but has not specified a mechanism by which one category influences subsequent behaviour. This paper extends the approach in two ways. Using the categories of control flaws derived from Levesons Systems–Theoretical Accident Model and Processes (STAMP) approach, it describes the mechanisms by which categories within HFACS are associated with other categories lower in the organisational hierarchy. It also provides a mechanism by which active failures can promulgate across organisations. The revised methodology HFACS-STAMP is illustrated using the case study of the Uberlingen mid-air collision on 1 July 2002.

Cockpit design and cross-cultural issues underlying failures in crew resource management.

High power-distance has been implicated in many aircraft accidents involving Southeast Asian carriers where crew resource management (CRM) has been identified as a root cause. However, this commentary argues that the design of modern flight decks and their standard operating procedures have an inherent Western (low power-distance) bias within them which exacerbates these CRM issues.

Identifying Training Deficiencies in Military Pilots by applying the human Factors Analysis and Classification System

Without accurate analysis, it is difficult to identify training needs and develop the content of training programs required for preventing aviation accidents. The human factors analysis and classification system (HFACS) is based on Reason’s system-wide model of human error. In this study, 523 accidents from the Republic of China Air Force were analyzed in which 1762 human errors were categorized. The results of the analysis showed that errors of judgment and poor decision-making were commonly reported amongst pilots. As a result, it was concluded that there was a need for military pilots to be trained specifically in making decisions in tactical environments. However, application of HFACS also allowed the identification of systemic training deficiencies within the organization further contributing to the accidents observed.

The Differences of Aviation Human Factors between Individualism and Collectivism Culture

Culture is at the root of action; it underlies the manner by which people communicate and develop attitudes towards life. This research examined statistical differences in the 18 categories of Human factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS, Shappell & Wiegmann, 2003) across 523 aviation accidents in the Republic of China (a collective culture) and 119 aviation accidents in the USA (an individual culture) . The result suggests that the culture of individualism seems to be superior for promoting aviation safety compared to collectivist cultures, however, factors such as the design of the aircraft, the management procedures and the nature of safety regulation all have a strong Western influence from the individualist culture. All of these factors are culturally congruent with the USA. It is essential to identify the potential causal roots for these differences from the underlying factors in these aviation mishaps, and identify what kind of factors drive people to act or react to dynamic situations that either lead to an accident help to develop an effective accident prevention strategy.

The Application of Aeronautical Decision-making Support Systems for Improving Pilots' Performance in Flight Operations

Operating a high-technology commercial airliner is not only an issue in psychomotor skill performance but also of a real-time decision-making involving situation awareness and risk management within a limited-time condition. The number of aircraft accidents attributable solely to mechanical failures has decreased markedly in recent years, but the contribution of human error has declined at a much slower rate. Previous research demonstrated a belief rule-based decision support system has provided more reliable and informative performance after training. The purpose of this research was to identify the best mnemonic-based method of decision support systems for improving commercial pilots performance in the advanced cockpit. A total of 157 airline pilots, all qualified on the Boeing 747-400 evaluated the suitability of four different ADM methods: SHOR (Stimuli, Hypotheses, Options, Response); PASS (Problem identification, Acquire information, Survey strategy, Select strategy); FORDEC (Facts, Options, Risks & Benefits, Decision, Execution, Check); and DESIDE (Detect, Estimate, Set safety objectives, Identify, Do, Evaluate). Each was evaluated for six different types of decisions: go/no go; recognition-primed; response selection; resource management; non-diagnostic procedural; and creative problem-solving. Pilots regarded the FORDEC methodology as being the best in all decision-making scenarios, irrespective of the time available to make the decision. It was also rated as the best ADM method for promoting crew coordination. However, it was advised that practicing the FORDEC mnemonic in flight simulator was important before attempting to apply it in a real life situation.

The Investigation Human-Computer Interaction on Multiple Remote Tower Operations

The aim of current research is to develop an effective human-computer interaction framework for multiple remote tower operations. Five subject-matter experts familiar with multiple remote tower operations and human performance participated in current research. The Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA) method is used to break down activities, scenarios, and tasks into single separate operations. The step by step breakdown of multiple remote tower operations included ATCO’s operational behaviors involving human-computer interaction such as interaction with EFS, OTW, RDP, and IDP during task performance were noted. Designing and managing human-computer interactions require an understanding of the principles of cognitive systems, allocation of functions and team adaptation between human operators and computer interactions. It is a holistic approach which considers distributed cognition coordination to rapidly changing situations. The human-centred design of multiple remote tower operations shall be based on a strategic, collaborative and automated concept of operations, as the associated high performance of remote tower systems in conflict detection and resolution has the potential to increase both airspace efficiency and the safety of aviation. The focus is on the human performance associated with new technology in the RTC and the supported tools used by an Air Traffic Control Officer, to ensure that these are used safely and efficiently to control aircraft both remotely and for multiple airports. The advanced technology did provide sufficient technical supports to one ATCO performing a task originally designed to be performed by several ATCOs, however, the application of this new technology also induced huge workload on the single ATCO.

The evaluation of pilot’s situational awareness during mode changes on flight mode annunciators

Current research investigates automation feedback design compared with a potential design solution that may increase pilot’s situation awareness of the Flight Mode Annunciators (FMAs) to reduce pilot workload and improve human-automation coordination. The research tools include an Eye Tracker and B747 flight simulator. This research evaluated two types of FMAs; a proposed glareshield mounted FMAs against the baseline FMA design mounted on the Primary Flight Display using an objective eye tracker. There are 19 participants including professional and private pilots and aerospace engineers. The results suggest that proposed glareshield design is the better design compared with the baseline design which demonstrated larger mean pupil sizes related to the higher workload. A design solution was proposed that moved the FMAs to a MCP position, taking into account EASA and FAA design guidance, as well as several design principles including positioning to increase salience and the proximity compatibility principle. The results of the experiment found that FMAs on the MCP could increase pilot SA and reduced the mean fixation duration compared to the PFD position. Although the study used a small sample size, it demonstrates the value of further research to evaluate the proposed design.

The analysis of safety recommendation and human error prevention strategies in flight operations

This study applied Human Factors Intervention Matrix (HFIX) framework described by Wiegmann and Shappell. METHOD: The data set comprised of 31 incident investigation reports taken place between 2009 and 2011 and included 182 unique safety recommendations to reduce human errors. The results indicated that major recommendations were directed at organizational/ administrative and human/ crew approaches and the most effective interventions concentrated on decision errors and violations. This study has demonstrated that the HFIX framework can be applied to improve human errors by five different approaches. It also has suggested that decision error and violations are critical issues of flight safety and these can be improved by training and organizational administration.

The Application of Human Error Template (HET) for Redesigning Standard Operational Procedures in Aviation Operations

Human Error Template (HET) is a checklist style approach to predict human errors in the cockpit for developing accident prevention strategies. It is applied to each bottom level task step in a hierarchical task analysis (HTA) of the task in question. This research applies the latest technique for human error prediction- Human Error Template to predict the potential design-induced human errors in the IDF during the landing phase of flight and provide a basis for improving software design and hardware equipment to enhance flight safety. In military operations emphasis is on the fulfillment of SOPs in an attempt to prevent incidents/accidents resulting from human factors. By the use of the scientific approach of HTA to evaluate current SOPs together with formal error analysis of the pilots, interface design and procedures, the air forces combat effectiveness will be improved and a user-friendly cockpit interface can be developed.

Confucius in western cockpits: the investigation of long-term versus short-term orientation culture and aviation accidents

This research applies the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System and Hofsteds fifth dimension of national culture (Confucian- long-term versus short-term orientation) to compare accident patterns between the US and Taiwan. Asia and Africa have higher accident rates than Europe or America. There are also fundamental differences between Chinese and Western minds. These variations suggest that there should be fundamental, underlying factors causing these differences. Several studies have investigated the relationship between culture and accidents however, no research has investigated Chinese culture and accidents. The findings clearly show different patterns in the human factors causes underlying aviation accidents in these different regions. It could even be argued that the accident analysis system itself has an implicit cultural bias within it, as HFACS was a product of Western culture. Global aviation is strongly influenced by the Western culture, however, the safety challenge is to manage the potential risks it may present.