William Bourguet

Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor γ Is a Target for Halogenated Analogs of Bisphenol A

Background: The occurrence of halogenated analogs of the xenoestrogen bisphenol A (BPA) has been recently demonstrated both in environmental and human samples. These analogs include brominated [e.g., tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA)] and chlorinated [e.g., tetrachlorobisphenol A (TCBPA)] bisphenols, which are both flame retardants. Because of their structural homology with BPA, such chemicals are candidate endocrine disruptors. However, their possible target(s) within the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily has remained unknown. Objectives: We investigated whether BPA and its halogenated analogs could be ligands of estrogen receptors (ERs) and peroxisome proliferator–activated receptors (PPARs) and act as endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Methods: We studied the activity of compounds using reporter cell lines expressing ERs and PPARs. We measured the binding affinities to PPARγ by competitive binding assays with [3H]-rosiglitazone and investigated the impact of TBBPA and TCBPA on adipocyte differentiation using NIH3T3-L1 cells. Finally, we determined the binding mode of halogenated BPAs to PPARγ by X-ray crystallography. Results: We observed that TBBPA and TCBPA are human, zebrafish, and Xenopus PPARγ ligands and determined the mechanism by which these chemicals bind to and activate PPARγ. We also found evidence that activation of ERα, ERβ, and PPARγ depends on the degree of halogenation in BPA analogs. We observed that the bulkier brominated BPA analogs, the greater their capability to activate PPARγ and the weaker their estrogenic potential. Conclusions: Our results strongly suggest that polyhalogenated bisphenols could function as obesogens by acting as agonists to disrupt physiological functions regulated by human or animal PPARγ.

A canonical structure for the ligand-binding domain of nuclear receptors

The ability of nuclear receptors (NRs) to activate transcription of target genes requires the binding of cognate ligands to their ligand-binding domains (LBDs). Information provided by the three-dimensional structures of the unliganded RXRα and the liganded RARγ LBDs has been incorporated into a general alignment of the LBDs of all NRs. A twenty amino-acid region constitutes a NR-specif ic signature and contains most of the conserved residues that stabilize the core of the canonical fold of NR LBDs. A common ligand-binding pocket, involving predominantly hydrophobic residues, is inferred by homology modelling of the human RXRα and glucocorticoid receptor ligand-binding sites according to the RARγ holo-LBD structure. Mutant studies support these models, as well as a general mechanism for ligand-induced activation deduced from the comparison of the transcriptionally active RARγ holo- and inactive RXRα apo-LBD structures.

Nuclear receptor ligand-binding domains: three-dimensional structures, molecular interactions and pharmacological implications

Nuclear receptors are members of a large family of ligand-inducible transcription factors that regulate gene programs underlying a plethora of (patho)physiological phenomena. The recent determination of the crystal structures of nuclear receptor ligand-binding domains has provided an extremely detailed insight into the intra- and intermolecular mechanisms that constitute the initial events of receptor activation and signal transduction. Here, a comprehensive mechanistic view of agonist and antagonist action will be presented. Furthermore, the novel class of partial agonists-antagonists will be described and the multiple challenges and novel perspectives for nuclear-receptor-based drug design will be discussed.

Structural and Functional Evidence for Ligand-Independent Transcriptional Activation by the Estrogen-Related Receptor 3

The crystal structure of the ligand binding domain (LBD) of the estrogen-related receptor 3 (ERR3) complexed with a steroid receptor coactivator-1 (SRC-1) peptide reveals a transcriptionally active conformation in absence of any ligand. The structure explains why estradiol does not bind ERRs with significant affinity. Docking of the previously reported ERR antagonists, diethylstilbestrol and 4-hydroxytamoxifen, requires structural rearrangements enlarging the ligand binding pocket that can only be accommodated with an antagonist LBD conformation. Mutant receptors in which the ligand binding cavity is filled up by bulkier side chains still interact with SRC-1 in vitro and are transcriptionally active in vivo, but are no longer efficiently inactivated by diethylstilbestrol or 4-hydroxytamoxifen. These results provide structural and functional evidence for ligand-independent transcriptional activation by ERR3.

Osh4p exchanges sterols for phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate between lipid bilayers

The yeast Kes1p/Osh4p protein functions as a sterol/PI(4)P exchanger between lipid membranes, which suggests the possibility of creating a sterol gradient via phosphoinositide metabolism.

Design of selective nuclear receptor modulators: RAR and RXR as a case study.

Retinoic acid receptors (RARs) and retinoid X receptors (RXRs) are members of the nuclear receptor superfamily whose effects on cell growth and survival can be modulated therapeutically by small-molecule ligands. Although compounds that target these receptors are powerful anticancer drugs, their use is limited by toxicity. An improved understanding of the structural biology of RXRs and RARs and recent advances in the chemical synthesis of modified retinoid and rexinoid ligands should enable the rational design of more selective agents that might overcome such problems. Here, we review structural data for RXRs and RARs, discuss strategies in the design of selective RXR and RAR modulators, and consider lessons that can be learned for the design of selective nuclear-receptor modulators in general.

Activation of RXR–PPAR heterodimers by organotin environmental endocrine disruptors

The nuclear receptor retinoid X receptor‐α (RXR‐α)–peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor‐γ (PPAR‐γ) heterodimer was recently reported to have a crucial function in mediating the deleterious effects of organotin compounds, which are ubiquitous environmental contaminants. However, because organotins are unrelated to known RXR‐α and PPAR‐γ ligands, the mechanism by which these compounds bind to and activate the RXR‐α–PPAR‐γ heterodimer at nanomolar concentrations has remained elusive. Here, we show that tributyltin (TBT) activates all three RXR–PPAR‐α, ‐γ, ‐δ heterodimers, primarily through its interaction with RXR. In addition, the 1.9 Å resolution structure of the RXR‐α ligand‐binding domain in complex with TBT shows a covalent bond between the tin atom and residue Cys 432 of helix H11. This interaction largely accounts for the high binding affinity of TBT, which only partly occupies the RXR‐α ligand‐binding pocket. Our data allow an understanding of the binding and activation properties of the various organotins and suggest a mechanism by which these tin compounds could affect other nuclear receptor signalling pathways.

A mutation mimicking ligand-induced conformational change yields a constitutive RXR that senses allosteric effects in heterodimers.

Mutations of a single residue in the retinoid X receptor α (RXRα) ligand‐binding pocket (LBP) generate constitutive, ligand‐binding‐competent mutants with structural and functional characteristics similar to those of agonist‐bound wild‐type RXR. Modelling of the mouse RXRαF318A LBP suggests that, like agonist binding, the mutation disrupts a cluster of van der Waals interactions that maintains helix H11 in the apo‐receptor location, thereby shifting the thermodynamic equilibrium to the holo form. Heterodimerization with some apo‐receptors (retinoic acid, thyroid hormone and vitamin D3 receptors) results in ‘silencing’ of RXRαF318A constitutive activity, which, on the other hand, efficiently contributes to synergistic transactivation within NGFI‐B‐RXR heterodimers. RAR mutants disabled for corepressor binding and/or lacking a functional AF‐2 activation domain, do not relieve RXR ‘silencing’. Not only RAR agonists, but also the RAR antagonist BMS614 induce conformational changes allowing RXR to exert constitutive (RXRαF318A) or agonist‐induced (wild‐type RXR) activity in heterodimers. Interestingly, the RXRαF318A constitutive activity generated within heterodimers in the presence of BMS614 requires the integrity of both RXR and RAR AF‐2 domains. These observations suggest that, within RXR‐RAR heterodimers, RAR can adopt a structure distinct from that of the active holo‐RAR, thus allowing RXR to become transcriptionally responsive to agonists.

Structural and mechanistic insights into bisphenols action provide guidelines for risk assessment and discovery of bisphenol A substitutes

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial compound and a well known endocrine-disrupting chemical with estrogenic activity. The widespread exposure of individuals to BPA is suspected to affect a variety of physiological functions, including reproduction, development, and metabolism. Here we report that the mechanisms by which BPA and two congeners, bisphenol AF and bisphenol C (BPC), bind to and activate estrogen receptors (ER) α and β differ from that used by 17β-estradiol. We show that bisphenols act as partial agonists of ERs by activating the N-terminal activation function 1 regardless of their effect on the C-terminal activation function 2, which ranges from weak agonism (with BPA) to antagonism (with BPC). Crystallographic analysis of the interaction between bisphenols and ERs reveals two discrete binding modes, reflecting the different activities of compounds on ERs. BPA and 17β-estradiol bind to ERs in a similar fashion, whereas, with a phenol ring pointing toward the activation helix H12, the orientation of BPC accounts for the marked antagonist character of this compound. Based on structural data, we developed a protocol for in silico evaluation of the interaction between bisphenols and ERs or other members of the nuclear hormone receptor family, such as estrogen-related receptor γ and androgen receptor, which are two known main targets of bisphenols. Overall, this study provides a wealth of tools and information that could be used for the development of BPA substitutes devoid of nuclear hormone receptor-mediated activity and more generally for environmental risk assessment.

Exploring hydrophobic sites in proteins with xenon or krypton.

X‐ray diffraction is used to study the binding of xenon and krypton to a variety of crystallised proteins: porcine pancreatic elastase; subtilisin Carlsberg from Bacillus licheniformis; cutinase from Fusarium solani; collagenase from Hypoderma lineatum; hen egg lysozyme, the lipoamide dehydrogenase domain from the outer membrane protein P64k from Neisseria meningitidis; urate‐oxidase from Aspergillus flavus, mosquitocidal δ‐endotoxin CytB from Bacillus thuringiensis and the ligand‐binding domain of the human nuclear retinoid‐X receptor RXR‐α. Under gas pressures ranging from 8 to 20 bar, xenon is able to bind to discrete sites in hydrophobic cavities, ligand and substrate binding pockets, and into the pore of channel‐like structures. These xenon complexes can be used to map hydrophobic sites in proteins, or as heavy‐atom derivatives in the isomorphous replacement method of structure determination. Proteins 30:61–73, 1998.