William E. Cross

Validating the Cross Racial Identity Scale

Validation work on the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS; B. J. Vandiver et al., 2000) is described in 2 studies using African American college students. In Study 1, an exploratory factor analysis supported the presence of 6 CRIS subscales. In Study 2, confirmatory factor analysis provided support for a 2-factor higher order model of the 6 CRIS subscales and the nigrescence model. Correlational analyses between the CRIS and the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (R. M. Sellers, M. A. Smith, J. N. Shelton, S. A. J. Rowley, & T. M. Chavous, 1998). supported the convergent validity of the CRIS. CRIS subscale scores were not meaningfully linked to social desirability or personality traits but were differentially linked to self-esteem.

A Multicultural Critique of Identity Status Theory and Research: A Call for Integration

Although identity status theory has inspired over 500 theoretical and empirical publications, it is unclear to what extent this tradition has incorporated non-White ethnic groups and theories of racial and ethnic identity development. We reviewed 57 empirical articles published between 1993 and 2003 in 6 leading outlets for identity status research and found that (a) 35% failed to report the ethnic composition of the sample, and (b) 74% of the samples consisted primarily of White participants. Given the increasing diversity of the United States and other Western countries, non-White ethnic groups need to be incorporated in identity status research, and the ethnic composition of research samples need to be adequately described. We review 4 models of racial and ethnic identity development that parallel the more general identity development process. We conclude by providing both methodological and theoretical suggestions for how identity status and racial or ethnic identity models can be integrated. Erikson’s (1963) eight-stage model of psychosocial development is one of the most influential life span developmental theories in the personality literature. It is by far the most frequently presented stage theory of development in both introduc

Generalizing Nigrescence Profiles Cluster Analyses of Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) Scores in Three Independent Samples

The two studies in this article examine the interpretability and generalizability of nigrescence profiles based on Cross Racial Identity Scale scores across different educational contexts. Study 1 participants (N = 333) came from a predominantly White institution (PWI) and were grouped into six clusters labeled Afrocentric, multiculturalist, assimilated, immersion, low race salience, and miseducated variant. The two samples in Study 2 consisted of students from PWIs (N = 314) and from historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs;N = 306), respectively. Both PWI and HBCU participants were grouped into five clusters. Four of the six original clusters (assimilated, immersion, low race salience, and miseducated variant) replicated in both samples, and one (multiculturalists) replicated only in the PWI sample. The results indicate that there are generalizable racial identity profiles in the Black population. The authors discuss the implications of the findings.

Reliability and Structural Validity of Cross Racial Identity Scale Scores in a Sample of African American Adults

In this article, the authors examine the internal consistency and structural validity of scores on the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS; Vandiver et al., 2000; Worrell, Vandiver, & Cross, 2000) in a sample of 105 adults. Exploratory factor analyses provided support for the six-factor structure of the CRIS. Reliability estimates for the scores were in the high to moderate range, and subscale inter-correlations were low. The authors conclude that the evidence supporting the CRIS is strong and recommend that the examination of CRIS scores be extended into other areas of construct validity.

A Daily Diary Study of Mental Health and Community Involvement Outcomes for Three Chinese American Social Identities.

Approximately 100 American youths of Chinese descent participated in a 14-day diary study, completing daily reports on ethnic feelings, American feelings, ethnic community involvement, and psychological well-being. Participants were divided into 4 identity orientations (Chinese, American, bicultural, or other) and then assessed for differential patterns of mental health and community involvement. Chinese-centered identities were characterized by positive well-being and positive self-esteem. However, the American-centered and bicultural groups had well-being and self-esteem levels equal to that of the Chinese-centered group. Although the measures of menial health failed to differentiate the identity categories, both the Chinese- and bicultural-centered groups showed high involvement in Chinese culture, whereas American-centered participants were, significantly less involved.

Racial awakening: Epiphanies and encounters in Black racial identity.

Objective: The current study was guided by Nigrescence theory (Cross, 1971, 1991) and explored the phenomenon of racial awakening or epiphanic experiences of Black adults. We were interested in describing the context and perceived outcomes of the epiphanies in participants’ understanding of what it means to be Black. Method: Sixty-four adults participated in racial life narrative interviews. There was an equivalent number of men and women who participated from 4 sites: Australia, Bermuda, South Africa, and the United States. Results: Findings from dimensional analysis highlight the turning points, triggers, and awakening or epiphanies in one’s racial identity. Specifically, in this study racial awakening or increased awareness about the meaning of being Black was spurred by personal experiences and/or observations, education, and activism. Participants discussed increased racial activism, racial pride, and possible-selves after the process of racial awakening and continued exploration. Only 1 participant described disappointment and despair after a racial epiphany. Conclusions: Findings extend our understanding of the process in which people develop a sense of racial consciousness. Insights may help inform future researchers in terms of identifying racial awakening prototypic stories and counselors in terms of providing opportunities to assist individuals in the meaning-making process.

Whiteness and Serendipity

The current focus on Whiteness is timely, as the papers included in the Major Contribution extend the discourse first presented by The Counseling Psychologist in 1993. The articles explore the evolution of White allies in a naturalistic and phenomenological way, as there is heavy reliance on current allies telling the story of their sojourn toward becoming relevant. Although mentoring played a critical factor in the evolution of many allies, serendipity best described the nature of a person’s epiphany, trigger, or turning point. There is irony in the fact that most students enter counseling psychology with a tendency to emphasize a color-blind or universalist perspective about the nature of humanity, yet most counseling psychology programs may actually reinforce these attitudes by exposing students to theory suggesting people are more alike than different with regard to intrapsychic and personality dynamics.