William G. Reese

Induced immobility in nervous and normal Pointer dogs.

Pointer dogs learn complex hunting tasks such as vigorous aim-directed activity in tracking specific birds and sudden rigid immobility “on point” at appropriate distance from the prey. In the presence of a human, dogs of the Arkansas Line of Nervous Pointers show markedly reduced activity. In close quarters, where they cannot flee, they usually react to humans by freezing. These responses do not extinguish. The breed demonstrates a strong capacity to inhibit motion. In our nervous dogs, this trait is greatly exaggerated. In the search for an objective and rapidly modifiable target motor sign to correlate with biochemical and pharmacological events, we discovered that 10 of 10 nervous dogs, in contrast to kennel mates of a normal line, developed tonic immobility (TI) which was induced by manual inversion into a sling and stroking. This is the first systematic demonstration of TI in mature dogs. The TI was accompanied by reduced telemetered heart rate (HR) compared to baseline. Release from the inverted position was accompanied by marked HR increase. In the absence of humans, both before and after the inversion, all nervous dogs showed little or no movement about the testing area. This was in contrast to the nine normal line dogs, which were comparable in age and sex. These normal dogs were very active before and after inversion into the sling. Five of the normals remained in the sling but did not show head and neck immobility and were generally relaxed. Their HRs increased slightly while in the inverted position, thereafter returning to baseline. The four normals which righted themselves soon after the inversion showed reduced HR with the resumed activity. We discuss possible mechanisms and review some of the implications for psychiatry and behavioral biology.

Immobility reactions: a modified classification.

This theoretical paper sets the stage for subsequent experimental reports on mobility and immobility in the Arkansas Line of Nervous Pointer dogs as contrasted with kennel mates of the normal line. Exactly opposite to the normal animals, the nervous dogs show marked inhibition of heart rate and musculoskeletal responses to man, including reduced ambulation and durable immobility following inversion and brief manual restraint in an open sling. The sling immobility of the nervous dogs (which may not differ basically from their freezing in upright position) might be designated as “tonic immobility” (TI). We hypothesize that such immobility, common in laboratory and natural conditions in many species, should be divided into two classes: hypotonic (cataleptic) and hypertonic (catatonic). We provide examples of such behaviors, particularly in man and dog, and cursorily review TI studies of other species. Neurophysiologic and neurochemical studies which bear on possible immobility mechanisms are briefly noted. We suggest that inconsistencies in reported concommitants of TI might result from failure to discriminate between types of behavioral responses.

Heart rate and activity in response to natural stimuli in nervous and normal pointer dogs

Une experience utilise une technique photoelectrique pour mesurer la locomotive et le rythme cardiaque chez deux lignees de pointers selectionnes pour leurs comportements normaux ou nerveux

Effect of environmental stimuli on the core temperature of nervous dogs.

Temperature sensitive radio transmitters were implanted into the abdominal cavities of two substrains of pointer dogs to monitor the core temperature during a 12:12 L/D cycle. The results obtained from dogs of a nervous, person-aversive strain were best described by a partially-rectified sine curve, with well defined maxima during the light period. When similarly tested in a situation with minimal diurnal stimulation, the variation in temperatures was reduced. Temperatures of normal pointer dogs, kennel-mates of the nervous dogs, fluctuated very little by comparison. Their data fitted a straight line about as well as a sine curve.

Differential sensitivity to morphine in nervous and normal pointer dogs

The effects of morphine and pentobarbital on body temperature and heart rate were studied in a line of pointer dogs characterized as genetically nervous. Intravenous administration of cumulative doses of morphine to the conscious, restrained, nervous dogs produced less tachycardia and hypothermia than were observed in control dogs. Nervous and control dogs did not differ in their responses to pentobarbital. These data are consistent with recent findings that nervous dogs have a lower density of opioid receptors in the brain than do control dogs.

Familial vulnerability for experimental neurosis

This summary review of work from one specialized laboratory provides background for the ensuing theoretical discussion concerning experimental neurosis in one inbred strain of purebred pointers. These animals respond selectively to negative reinforcements provided adventitiously in the laboratory environment. The inherited vulnerability of this neurotic strain is contrasted with the high “immunity” of a parallel line in the same laboratory environment.

A Canine Model of Psychopathology

Periodically, under external, non-scientific pressure for “relevance,” we have proposed that the Arkansas Line of Nervous Pointer Dogs may be a suitable model of human psychopathology (1) or even of more specific human disorders such as anxiety or phobia (2, 3) or schizophrenia, especially catatonic (4). G. R. Smith, Jr., of our institution, sees strong parallels with the conservation-withdrawal phenomena of Engel and Schmale (5). Perhaps this paper should be entitled “a dog hunting a model.” Mlany of our past papers are referenced in the summary articles cited above and more recently by L. Lucas, et al., (6). Rather than burden this paper with a long bibliography, we refer the interested reader to the specific references cited (1, 3, 6). Statements of fact are backed up by experiments reported in the primary papers.

Early history of the pavlovian society

This paper reviews the first 25 years of the Pavlovian Society and quotes correspondence (1955–1978) from Gantt, the central Founder, concerning his ideas about the aims, organization, and functions of the Society. The author provides his knowledge of unofficial actions and his own view of some of these.

Pavlovian Society Awards

This archival paper, from a founding member of the Pavlovian Society and continuous member of its Executive Committee, includes sketches of 17 of 23 winners of the Pavlovian Award between 1966–1983.

Immobility experiments with dogs of the Arkansas Line of Nervous Pointers

As demonstrated in four experiments, dogs and pups of the Arkansas Line of Nervous Pointers, in contrast to kennel-mate dogs of the normal line, respond to manual inversion and brief restraint in an open sling with prolonged, mainly hypertonic, immobility. This response is consistent and replicable. At least in 4-month-old pups, the duration of sling immobility is positively correlated with the degree of behavioral pathology as determined by the objective Human Interaction Test. We found no evidence of basic difference between upright freezing and supine immobility.