Xueyan Yang

On same-sex sexual behaviors among male bachelors in rural China: evidence from a female shortage context.

Using data from a survey conducted in the rural areas of Anhui Province, this study adopted the crosstabs and logistic regression model to analyze the same-sex sexual behaviors of forced male bachelors and the determinants when compared with married men with same ages. The prevalence of same-sex sexual behaviors among the unmarried men was reported as 17.2%, significantly higher than 8.9% among married men with same ages, indicating that same-sex sexual behaviors could be as a compensation for the absence of female sexual partners to some extent for those marriage squeezed or forced male bachelors. Among all groups, the occurrence of unprotected sexual behaviors were reported above 60%, regardless of marital status and the genders of sexual partners; the scores obtained on knowledge of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) among bachelors (AIDS knowledge = 2.85; STDs knowledge = 2.38) are much poorer than those of married men (AIDS knowledge = 3.45; STDs knowledge = 2.79), which might exert potential negative impacts on men’s health.

Same-Sex Sexual Behaviors Among Male Migrants in a Context of Male “Marriage Squeeze” Results From an Exploratory Survey in Urban Xi’an, China

The male marriage squeeze in China may increase the prevalence of male same-sex sexual behaviors among unmarried male migrants who lack stable female sexual partners. The same-sex sexual behaviors among unmarried male migrants appear to be at high risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), mainly because of a lack of knowledge of these diseases. Using data from the “Survey on Reproductive Health and Family Life of Migrant Male Bachelors in Urban Areas” conducted in Xi’an City, Shaanxi Province, in December 2009 and January 2010, this study compares same-sex sexual behaviors of unmarried with that of married male migrants (including married but separated men who are migrating without their spouse or partner and cohabitating men who are migrating with their spouse or partner). It is reported that the prevalence of same-sex sexual behaviors among unmarried males reaches 11%, more than twice the 5.1% reported by married but separated men and thrice the 3.8% reported by cohabitating men. It also appears that the same-sex sexual behaviors is significantly associated with men’s attitudes toward same-sex sexual behaviors (odds ratio = 1.59, p < .001), toward life-long bachelorhood (odds ratio = 1.35, p < .01), and with marital status (odds ratio = 0.37, p < .01). The frequency of condom use appears to be higher among unmarried men than among men who are married, whether or not they migrated with their wives, and is significantly associated with scores on knowledge about HIV/AIDS (estimated coefficient = .12, p < .001) and STIs (estimated coefficient = .22, p < .01). It is also associated with the likelihood of same-sex sexual behaviors (estimated coefficients = .83, p < .01) and marital status (estimated coefficients for married but separated = −.50, p < .05; estimated coefficients for cohabitating = −.77, p < .001).

Commercial Sex and Condom Use Among Involuntary Bachelors: An Exploratory Survey in Rural China.

In the present context of the Chinese male marriage squeeze, commercial sex is becoming an important way for bachelors to meet their sexual needs. Using data from a survey conducted in a rural district of Anhui province, China, this study analyzes commercial sex experiences and condom use among involuntary bachelors and compares usage in this population to that observed in married men in the same age groups. Our findings indicate that, for both first and most recent sexual intercourse, the prevalence of commercial sex among unmarried men is significantly higher than that reported among married men; indeed, marital status was the only variable that was consistently related to rates of commercial sex for both first and most recent sexual intercourse. The vast majority of sexual intercourse was still unprotected, and the rate of condom use was not only lower among unmarried men than among married men, but was also significantly related to knowledge of sexually transmitted diseases, as well as age, education, and income. Because of their lower condom use, unmarried men face much higher risks of contracting and spreading sexually transmitted diseases than married men do. This situation poses a severe threat to public health.

Boy Crisis? Sex Differences in Self-Injurious Behaviors and the Effects of Gender Role Conflicts Among College Students in China

In Western research, self-injurious behaviors are commonly viewed as “feminine” behavior. In this present study, using the data from a survey administered to 960 first- and second-year students in Xi’an Jiaotong University in China, the self-injurious behaviors among college students are analyzed by sex. The results reported that the average prevalence of self-injurious behaviors among male students is 35.2%, higher than the 20.4% observed among female students (p < .1), and the average frequency of severe self-injurious behaviors among male students is 0.4, higher than the 0.18 reported among female students (p < .05). Gender role conflicts and verbal violence are strongly associated with male students’ self-injurious behaviors, whereas gender role conflicts and verbal, visual, and sexual violence are strongly associated with female students’ self-injurious behaviors. This suggests that self-injurious behaviors among college students in China constitute, to some extent, a boy crisis that can be well explained by gender role conflicts. In addition, verbal violence leads to self-injurious behaviors among both male and female students, whereas visual and sexual violence lead to self-injurious behaviors only among female students.

Development and Validation of a Gender Ideology Scale for Family Planning Services in Rural China

The objectives of this study are to develop a scale of gender role ideology appropriate for assessing Quality of Care in family planning services for rural China. Literature review, focus-group discussions and in-depth interviews with service providers and clients from two counties in eastern and western China, as well as experts’ assessments, were used to develop a scale for family planning services. Psychometric methodologies were applied to samples of 601 service clients and 541 service providers from a survey in a district in central China to validate its internal consistency, reliability, and construct validity with realistic and strategic dimensions. This scale is found to be reliable and valid, and has prospects for application both academically and practically in the field.

On the Relationship Between the Marriage Squeeze and the Quality of Life of Rural Men in China.

China is facing a male marriage squeeze, as there are more men in the marriage market than potential female partners. As a consequence, some men may fail to ever marry. However, while some studies have suggested that most unmarried men affected by the marriage squeeze in rural China feel a sense of failure, the quality of life of the men who remain unmarried against their will remains largely unexplored. Using data collected in rural Hanbin district of Ankang City (Shaanxi, China), this study analyzes the relationship between the marriage squeeze and the quality of life among rural men. Descriptive analyses indicate that the quality of life of unmarried men aged 28 years and older tends to be worse than for both younger unmarried men and married men. Also, the quality of life of men who perceive the marriage squeeze appears to be worse than that of those who do not. Regression analyses reveal that the perceived marriage squeeze and age independently have a significant negative relationship with the quality of life of rural men.

Developing scales for measuring gender behaviors in reproductive health in rural China.

This article introduces two scales for measuring the gender-specific burden of family planning (FP) and reproductive health (RH) in rural China, following the implementation of a client-oriented approach to FP/RH. One scale (GHRHS-SC) measures FP/RH clients to examine whether gender influences FP/RH behaviors. The other scale (GHRHS-SP) measures service provider interactions with service clients to gauge whether FP/RH institutions are fulfilling the client-oriented mandate. The content of scales was developed through inductive analysis conducted on data generated from focus groups and in-depth interviews. The validation of the scales was confirmed with item analysis, exploratory factor analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis. To generate data for validation purposes, we employed a stratified cluster sampling method for a sample of service providers and a stratified multistage method for a sample of service clients. The analytical results indicate that the scales possess good internal consistency, reliability, and overall validity. The construct validity for the GHRHS-SP needs some improvement. Both the GHRHS-SC and GHRHS-SP are valid instruments for measuring gender differences in FP/RH behavior, though further refinements would be beneficial.

“Boy Crisis” or “Girl Risk”? The Gender Difference in Nonsuicidal Self-Injurious Behavior Among Middle-School Students in China and its Relationship to Gender Role Conflict and Violent Experiences:

Purpose: We attempted to test if there were gender differences in nonsuicidal self-injurious (NSSI) behaviors among Chinese middle-school students, and analyze the impact of gender role conflict and violent experiences on these behaviors among middle-school students of different genders. Method: Based on the survey data from seven middle schools in Xi’an region of China, the gender difference in NSSI behaviors and its associated factors were analyzed in this study. Results: There was no significant gender difference in NSSI behaviors among middle-school students; however, female middle-school students were more likely to experience gender role conflicts while male students were more likely to experience all kinds of violence earlier. Gender role conflicts and violent experiences can explain the prevalence of NSSI behaviors by gender, to some extent. Conclusions: The hypothesis on gender patterns of “boy crisis” or “girl risk” on NSSI prevalence was not verified; however, a “girl risk” for gender role conflicts and a “boy crisis” in violent experiences were found. The gender role conflicts were significantly associated with NSSI prevalence among middle-school students to some extent; however, this relationship was adjusted by variables of violent experiences. The different variables of violent experiences were the important predictors of NSSI prevalence among male and female middle-school students with specific contents varying across genders.

Social Support Networks and Quality of Life of Rural Men in a Context of Marriage Squeeze in China

A significant number of rural Chinese men are facing difficulties in finding a spouse and may fail to ever marry due to a relative scarcity of women in the adult population. Research has indicated that marriage squeeze is a stressful event which is harmful to men’s quality of life, and also weakens their social support networks. Using data collected in rural Chaohu city, Anhui, China, this study explores the effects of social support networks on quality of life of rural men who experience a marriage squeeze. The results indicate that the size of social contact networks is directly and positively associated with the quality of life of marriage-squeezed men, and moderate the negative effect of age on quality of life. Having no or limited instrumental support network and social contact network are double-edged swords, which have direct negative associations with the quality of life of marriage-squeezed men, and have moderate effects on the relationship between marriage squeeze and quality of life.

Gender role conflict, professional role confidence, and intentional persistence in engineering students in China

In the current study, the relationship between gender role conflict, professional role confidence, and intentional persistence was examined using data from a survey of male and female Chinese engineering students. Intentional persistence was significantly associated with gender role conflict and professional role confidence; however, the pattern of associations differed for males and females. For male students, gender role conflict and professional role confidence were associated with intentional persistence; however, for female students, the association between professional role confidence and intentional persistence was moderated by gender role conflict.