Yoshitomo Hamuro

Protein structure change studied by hydrogen-deuterium exchange, functional labeling, and mass spectrometry

An automated high-throughput, high-resolution deuterium exchange HPLC-MS method (DXMS) was used to extend previous hydrogen exchange studies on the position and energetic role of regulatory structure changes in hemoglobin. The results match earlier highly accurate but much more limited tritium exchange results, extend the analysis to the entire sequence of both hemoglobin subunits, and identify some energetically important changes. Allosterically sensitive amide hydrogens located at near amino acid resolution help to confirm the reality of local unfolding reactions and their use to evaluate resolved structure changes in terms of allosteric free energy.

High resolution, high‐throughput amide deuterium exchange‐mass spectrometry (DXMS) determination of protein binding site structure and dynamics: Utility in pharmaceutical design

Mass spectrometry‐based peptide amide deuterium exchange techniques have proven to be increasingly powerful tools with which protein structure and function can be studied, and are unparalleled in their ability to probe sub‐molecular protein dynamics. Despite this promise, the methodology has remained labor‐intensive and time consuming, with substantial limitations in comprehensiveness (the extent to which target protein sequence is covered with measurable peptide fragments) and resolution (the degree to which exchange measurements can be ascribed to particular amides). I have developed and integrated a number of improvements to these methodologies into an automated high throughput, high resolution system termed Deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry (DXMS). With DXMS, complete sequence coverage and single‐amide (amino acid) resolution are now rapidly accomplished. DXMS is designed to work well with large proteins and when only small amounts of material are available for study. Studies can be performed upon a receptor‐ligand pair as they exist on or within a living cell (in vivo) without prior purification, allowing effective in situ study of integral membrane protein receptors. We have ambitious initiatives underway to make DXMS widely available both for basic academic research studies and commercial drug discovery efforts. In this paper I present an overview of DXMS technology and highlight some of the benefits it will provide in drug discovery and basic proteomics research. J. Cell. Biochem. Suppl. 37: 89–98, 2001.

Distinct interaction modes of an AKAP bound to two regulatory subunit isoforms of protein kinase A revealed by amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange

The structure of an AKAP docked to the dimerization/docking (D/D) domain of the type II (RIIα) isoform of protein kinase A (PKA) has been well characterized, but there currently is no detailed structural information of an AKAP docked to the type I (RIα) isoform. Dual‐specific AKAP2 (D‐AKAP2) binds in the nanomolar range to both isoforms and provided us with an opportunity to characterize the isoform‐selective nature of AKAP binding using a common docked ligand. Hydrogen/deuterium (H/D) exchange combined with mass spectrometry (DXMS) was used to probe backbone structural changes of an α‐helical A‐kinase binding (AKB) motif from D‐AKAP2 docked to both RIα and RIIα D/D domains. The region of protection upon complex formation and the magnitude of protection from H/D exchange were determined for both interacting partners in each complex. The backbone of the AKB ligand was more protected when bound to RIα compared to RIIα, suggesting an increased helical stabilization of the docked AKB ligand. This combined with a broader region of backbone protection induced by the AKAP on the docking surface of RIα indicated that there were more binding constraints for the AKB ligand when bound to RIα. This was in contrast to RIIα, which has a preformed, localized binding surface. These distinct modes of AKAP binding may contribute to the more discriminating nature of the RIα AKAP‐docking surface. DXMS provides valuable structural information for understanding binding specificity in the absence of a high‐resolution structure, and can readily be applied to other protein–ligand and protein–protein interactions.

Domain Organization of D-AKAP2 Revealed by Enhanced Deuterium Exchange-Mass Spectrometry (DXMS)

Dual specific A-kinase anchoring protein 2 (D-AKAP2) is a scaffold protein that coordinates cAMP-mediated signaling complexes by binding to type I and type II protein kinase A (PKA). While information is unfolding regarding specific binding motifs, very little is known about the overall structure and dynamics of these scaffold proteins. We have used deuterium exchange-mass spectrometry (DXMS) and limited proteolysis to probe the folded regions of D-AKAP2, providing for the first time insight into the intra-domain dynamics of a scaffold protein. Deuterium on-exchange revealed two regions of low deuterium exchange that were surrounded by regions of high exchange, suggestive of two distinctly folded regions, flanked by disordered or solvent accessible regions. Similar folded regions were detected by limited proteolysis. The first folded region contained a putative regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS) domain. A structural model of the RGS domain revealed that the more deuterated regions mapped onto loops and turns, whereas less deuterated regions mapped onto alpha-helices, consistent with this region folding into an RGS domain. The second folded region contained a highly protected PKA binding site and a more solvent-accessible PDZ binding motif, which may serve as a potential targeting domain for D-AKAP2. DXMS has verified the multi-domain architecture of D-AKAP2 implied by sequence homology and has provided unique insight into the accessibility of the PKA binding site.

Phosphorylation Driven Motions in the COOH-terminal Src Kinase, Csk, Revealed Through Enhanced Hydrogen–Deuterium Exchange and Mass Spectrometry (DXMS)

Previous kinetic studies demonstrated that nucleotide-derived conformational changes regulate function in the COOH-terminal Src kinase. We have employed enhanced methods of hydrogen-deuterium exchange-mass spectrometry (DXMS) to probe conformational changes on CSK in the absence and presence of nucleotides and thereby provide a structural framework for understanding phosphorylation-driven conformational changes. High quality peptic fragments covering approximately 63% of the entire CSK polypeptide were isolated using DXMS. Time-dependent deuterium incorporation into these probes was monitored to identify short peptide segments that exchange differentially with solvent. Regions expected to lie in loops exchange rapidly, whereas other regions expected to lie in stable secondary structure exchange slowly with solvent implying that CSK adopts a modular structure. The ATP analog, AMPPNP, protects probes in the active site and distal regions in the large and small lobes of the kinase domain, the SH2 domain, and the linker connecting the SH2 and kinase domains. The product ADP protects similar regions of the protein but the extent of protection varies markedly in several crucial areas. These areas correspond to the activation loop and helix G in the kinase domain and several inter-domain regions. These results imply that delivery of the gamma phosphate group of ATP induces unique local and long-range conformational changes in CSK that may influence regulatory motions in the catalytic pathway.

Quantitative Assessment of Protein Structural Models by Comparison of H/D Exchange MS Data with Exchange Behavior Accurately Predicted by DXCOREX

Peptide amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (DXMS) data are often used to qualitatively support models for protein structure. We have developed and validated a method (DXCOREX) by which exchange data can be used to quantitatively assess the accuracy of three-dimensional (3-D) models of protein structure. The method utilizes the COREX algorithm to predict a protein’s amide hydrogen exchange rates by reference to a hypothesized structure, and these values are used to generate a virtual data set (deuteron incorporation per peptide) that can be quantitatively compared with the deuteration level of the peptide probes measured by hydrogen exchange experimentation. The accuracy of DXCOREX was established in studies performed with 13 proteins for which both high-resolution structures and experimental data were available. The DXCOREX-calculated and experimental data for each protein was highly correlated. We then employed correlation analysis of DXCOREX-calculated versus DXMS experimental data to assess the accuracy of a recently proposed structural model for the catalytic domain of a Ca2+-independent phospholipase A2. The model’s calculated exchange behavior was highly correlated with the experimental exchange results available for the protein, supporting the accuracy of the proposed model. This method of analysis will substantially increase the precision with which experimental hydrogen exchange data can help decipher challenging questions regarding protein structure and dynamics.

Dissecting interdomain communication within cAPK regulatory subunit type IIβ using enhanced amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (DXMS)

cAMP‐dependent protein kinase (cAPK) is a heterotetramer containing a regulatory (R) subunit dimer bound to two catalytic (C) subunits and is involved in numerous cell signaling pathways. The C‐subunit is activated allosterically when two cAMP molecules bind sequentially to the cAMP‐binding domains, designated A and B (cAB‐A and cAB‐B, respectively). Each cAMP‐binding domain contains a conserved Arg residue that is critical for high‐affinity cAMP binding. Replacement of this Arg with Lys affects cAMP affinity, the structural integrity of the cAMP‐binding domains, and cAPK activation. To better understand the local and long‐range effects that the Arg‐to‐Lys mutation has on the dynamic properties of the R‐subunit, the amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange in the RIIβ subunit was probed by electrospray mass spectrometry. Mutant proteins containing the Arg‐to‐Lys substitution in either cAMP‐binding domain were deuterated for various times and then, prior to mass spectrometry analysis, subjected to pepsin digestion to localize the deuterium incorporation. Mutation of this Arg in cAB‐A (Arg230) causes an increase in amide hydrogen exchange throughout the mutated domain that is beyond the modest and localized effects of cAMP removal and is indicative of the importance of this Arg in domain organization. Mutation of Arg359 (cAB‐B) leads to increased exchange in the adjacent cAB‐A domain, particularly in the cAB‐A domain C‐helix that lies on top of the cAB‐B domain and is believed to be functionally linked to the cAB‐B domain. This interdomain communication appears to be a unidirectional pathway, as mutation of Arg230 in cAB‐A does not effect dynamics of the cAB‐B domain.

Determination of Equine Cytochrome c Backbone Amide Hydrogen/Deuterium Exchange Rates by Mass Spectrometry Using a Wider Time Window and Isotope Envelope

AbstractA new strategy to analyze amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) data is proposed, utilizing a wider time window and isotope envelope analysis of each peptide. While most current scientific reports present HDX-MS data as a set of time-dependent deuteration levels of peptides, the ideal HDX-MS data presentation is a complete set of backbone amide hydrogen exchange rates. The ideal data set can provide single amide resolution, coverage of all exchange events, and the open/close ratio of each amide hydrogen in EX2 mechanism. Toward this goal, a typical HDX-MS protocol was modified in two aspects: measurement of a wider time window in HDX-MS experiments and deconvolution of isotope envelope of each peptide. Measurement of a wider time window enabled the observation of deuterium incorporation of most backbone amide hydrogens. Analysis of the isotope envelope instead of centroid value provides the deuterium distribution instead of the sum of deuteration levels in each peptide. A one-step, global-fitting algorithm optimized exchange rate and deuterium retention during the analysis of each amide hydrogen by fitting the deuterated isotope envelopes at all time points of all peptides in a region. Application of this strategy to cytochrome c yielded 97 out of 100 amide hydrogen exchange rates. A set of exchange rates determined by this approach is more appropriate for a patent or regulatory filing of a biopharmaceutical than a set of peptide deuteration levels obtained by a typical protocol. A wider time window of this method also eliminates false negatives in protein-ligand binding site identification. Graphical Abstractᅟ

Regio-Selective Intramolecular Hydrogen/Deuterium Exchange in Gas-Phase Electron Transfer Dissociation

AbstractProtein backbone amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) typically utilizes enzymatic digestion after the exchange reaction and before MS analysis to improve data resolution. Gas-phase fragmentation of a peptic fragment prior to MS analysis is a promising technique to further increase the resolution. The biggest technical challenge for this method is elimination of intramolecular hydrogen/deuterium exchange (scrambling) in the gas phase. The scrambling obscures the location of deuterium. Jørgensen’s group pioneered a method to minimize the scrambling in gas-phase electron capture/transfer dissociation. Despite active investigation, the mechanism of hydrogen scrambling is not well-understood. The difficulty stems from the fact that the degree of hydrogen scrambling depends on instruments, various parameters of mass analysis, and peptide analyzed. In most hydrogen scrambling investigations, the hydrogen scrambling is measured by the percentage of scrambling in a whole molecule. This paper demonstrates that the degree of intramolecular hydrogen/deuterium exchange depends on the nature of exchangeable hydrogen sites. The deuterium on Tyr amide of neurotensin (9–13), Arg-Pro-Tyr-Ile-Leu, migrated significantly faster than that on Ile or Leu amides, indicating the loss of deuterium from the original sites is not mere randomization of hydrogen and deuterium but more site-specific phenomena. This more precise approach may help understand the mechanism of intramolecular hydrogen exchange and provide higher confidence for the parameter optimization to eliminate intramolecular hydrogen/deuterium exchange during gas-phase fragmentation. Graphical Abstractᅟ