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Effect of the SPARK Program on Physical Activity, Cardiorespiratory Endurance, and Motivation in Middle-School Students

BACKGROUND This study aimed to examine the effect of a 9-week SPARK program on physical activity (PA), cardiorespiratory endurance (Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run; PACER), and motivation in middle-school students. METHODS 174 students attended baseline and posttests and change scores computed for each outcome. A MANOVA was employed to examine change score differences using follow-up ANOVA and Bonferroni post hoc tests. RESULTS MANOVA yielded a significant interaction for Grade × Gender × Group (Wilkss Λ = 0.89, P < .001). ANOVA for PA revealed significant differences between SPARK grades 6 and 7 (Mean Δ = 8.11, P < .01) and Traditional grades 6 and 8 (Mean Δ = -6.96, P < .01). ANOVA also revealed greater PACER change for Traditional boys in grade 8 (P < .01) and SPARK girls in grade 8 (P < .01). There were significant interactions with perceived competence differences between SPARK grades 6 and 8 (Mean Δ = 0.38, P < .05), Enjoyment differences between SPARK grades 6 and 7 (Mean Δ = 0.67, P < .001), and SPARK grades 6 and 8 (Mean Δ = 0.81, P < .001). CONCLUSIONS Following the intervention, SPARK displayed greater increases on PA and motivation measures in younger students compared with the Traditional program.

Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programming and Classroom Behavior.

OBJECTIVES The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) on classroom behavior in low-income children. METHODS The participants included 1460 children recruited from 3 low-income schools receiving governmental financial assistance. A total of 77 classrooms were observed across grades K through 6. Classrooms were observed one week prior to the implementation of CSPAP and at 6 weeks and 12 weeks after commencement of the program. Members of the research team observed classroom behavior using systematic observation, specifically a 5-second momentary time sampling procedure. A generalized linear mixed effects model was used to determine the change in odds of a classroom achieving at least 80% on-task behavior following the implementation of CSPAP. RESULTS There were 7.49 (95% CI: 2.83, 19.79) greater odds of a classroom achieving 80% on-task behavior at 6 weeks compared to baseline and a 27.93 (95% CI: 7.93, 98.29) greater odds of a classroom achieving 80% on-task behavior at 12 weeks compared to baseline (p < .001). CONCLUSIONS After the CSPAP was implemented, on-task classroom behavior significantly improved across all grade levels.

Establishing school day pedometer step count cut-points using ROC curves in low-income children

Previous research has not established pedometer step count cut-points that discriminate children that meet school day physical activity recommendations using a tri-axial ActiGraph accelerometer criterion. The purpose of this study was to determine step count cut-points that associate with 30min of school day moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in school-aged children. Participants included 1053 school-aged children (mean age=8.4±1.8years) recruited from three low-income schools from the state of Utah in the U.S. Physical activity was assessed using Yamax DigiWalker CW600 pedometers and ActiGraph wGT3X-BT triaxial accelerometers that were concurrently worn during school hours. Data were collected at each school during the 2014-2015 school year. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were used to determine pedometer step count cut-points that associated with at least 30min of MVPA during school hours. Cut-points were determined using the maximum Youdens J statistic (J max). For the total sample, the area-under-the-curve (AUC) was 0.77 (p<0.001) with a pedometer cut-point of 5505 steps (J max=0.46, Sensitivity=63%, Specificity=84%; Accuracy=76%). Step counts showed greater diagnostic ability in girls (AUC=0.81, p<0.001; Cut-point=5306 steps; Accuracy=78.8%) compared to boys (AUC=0.72, p<0.01; Cut-point=5786 steps; Accuracy=71.4%). Pedometer step counts showed good diagnostic ability in girls and fair diagnostic ability in boys for discriminating children that met at least 30min of MVPA during school hours.

Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programming and Activity Enjoyment.

OBJECTIVES The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) on physical activity enjoyment in children from low-income schools. METHODS Participants were 758 children recruited from the 3rd-6th grade (mean age = 10.1 ± 0.5 years; 376 girls and 382 boys) from 3 schools receiving governmental financial assistance in the US. CSPAP was implemented over one semester during the 2014-2015 school year. We assessed physical activity enjoyment at baseline and at a 12-week follow-up using the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale. We used a mixed-design 4 × 2 × 2 analysis of covariance test with repeated measures to examine the effect of grade, sex, and time (baseline, follow-up) on enjoyment scores, adjusting for the clustering of students within classrooms and schools. RESULTS There were greater enjoyment scores at follow-up compared to baseline (Mean Difference = 7%, p < .001); however, the increase only represented a small sized effect (d = 0.26). Post hoc tests revealed that greater improvements in enjoyment were seen in older children compared to third graders (p < .001). CONCLUSIONS The CSPAP marginally improved enjoyment levels in children from low-income schools and we found greater improvements in older children.

Gross Motor Skills and Cardiometabolic Risk in Children: A Mediation Analysis.

Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine the linear relationship between gross motor skills and cardiometabolic risk, with aerobic fitness as a mediator variable, in low-income children from the United States. Methods Participants were a convenience sample of 224 children (mean ± SD age = 9.1 ± 1.1 yr; 129 girls and 95 boys) recruited from five low-income elementary schools from the Mountain West Region of the United States. Gross motor skills were assessed using the Test for Gross Motor Development, 3rd Edition. Gross motor skills were analyzed using a locomotor skill, a ball skill, and a total gross motor skill score. Aerobic fitness was assessed using the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run that was administered during physical education class. A continuous and age- and sex-adjusted metabolic syndrome score (MetS) was calculated from health and blood marker measurements collected in a fasted state before school hours. Total effects, average direct effects, and indirect effects (average causal mediation effect) were calculated using a bootstrap mediation analysis method via a linear regression algorithm. Results The average causal mediation effect of gross locomotor skills on MetS scores, using aerobic fitness as the mediator variable, was statistically significant (&bgr; = −0.055, 95% confidence interval = −0.097 to −0.021, P = 0.003). The model explained approximately 17.5% of the total variance in MetS with approximately 43.7% of the relationship between locomotor skills and MetS mediated through aerobic fitness. Ball skills did not significantly relate with cardiometabolic risk. Conclusion There is a significant relationship between gross locomotor skills and cardiometabolic risk that is partially mediated through aerobic fitness in a sample of low-income children from the United States.

Predictors and Trends of Gross Motor Skill Performance in At-Risk Elementary School-Aged Children

The purpose of this study was to examine the predictors and trends of gross motor skills in children from low-income families. The participants were 1,460 children (M age = 8.39 yr., SD = 1.83; K–6th grade) recruited from three Title I schools. The Test of Gross Motor Development–2nd Edition (TGMD–2) assessed motor skills, FITNESSGRAM assessed health-related fitness, and pedometers and accelerometers measured moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Multilevel modeling revealed that TGMD–2 scores predicted aerobic capacity, but no other relationships were found with other Healthy Fitness Zone parameters or MVPA. TGMD–2 performance was 4.8 and 4.7% greater in successively higher grade levels for girls and boys, respectively. In conclusion, TGMD–2 scores predict aerobic capacity and TGMD–2 scores improved between 4 and 5% in older grade cohorts separated by 1 year.

Effect of a 12-Week Physical Activity Program on Gross Motor Skills in Children

This study examined the effects of a 12-week Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) on gross motor skill development in children from low-income families. Participants were 1,460 school-aged children (mean age = 8.4 ± 1.8 years; 730 girls, 730 boys) recruited from three schools receiving U.S. governmental financial assistance. Students were recruited from grades K−6. CSPAP was implemented over one semester during the 2014−2015 school year. Select gross motor skill items were assessed during each student’s physical education class at baseline and at a 12-week follow-up using the Test for Gross Motor Development-2nd Edition (TGMD-2). Each student’s TGMD-2 score was converted to a percentage of the total possible score. A 7 × 2 × 2 analysis of variance test with repeated measures was employed to examine the effects of age, sex, and time on TGMD-2 percent scores, adjusting for clustering within the data structure. There were greater TGMD-2 percent scores at follow-up compared with baseline (82.4% vs. 72.6%, mean difference = 9.8%, p < .001, Cohen’s d = 0.67), and greater improvements were seen in younger children compared with older children (mean difference of change = 4.0%−7.5%, p < .01, Cohen’s d = 0.30−0.55).

Predictors and grade level trends of school day physical activity achievement in low-income children from the U.S.

The achievement of recommended levels (≥ 30 min/day) of school moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) is paramount to decrease risk of chronic disease in children from low-income families. The purpose of this study was to examine the predictors and grade-level trends of school day MVPA achievement in low-income children. Data were collected during the Fall of 2014 on 1232 children (Mean age = 8.8 ± 1.6 years; 625 girls, 607 boys) recruited from three low-income schools from the state of Utah in the U.S. Children wore pedometers for one school week and a stratified random subsample (n = 533) also wore accelerometers to record sedentary time and MVPA. Generalized linear mixed models were employed to calculate odds ratios for achieving school MVPA standards (≥ 30 min/day) from various predictors and to determine odds of achievement across grade levels, accounting for school and classroom clustering. Odds of meeting MVPA standards were 3 times greater if a student achieved at least 6000 steps during the school day (p < 0.01), and were 55% lower for every 1% increase in sedentary time (p < 0.001). Older children had 26% lower odds of meeting the recommended levels of MVPA compared to children in an immediately younger grade level (p < 0.05). A significant proportion of MVPA variance was explained by classroom and school affiliation (Rho = 0.09 to 0.54, p < 0.001). Daily steps, sedentary times, grade level, and classroom and school affiliation associate with school MVPA achievement in low-income children.

Effect of a 12-Week Summer Break on School Day Physical Activity and Health-Related Fitness in Low-Income Children from CSPAP Schools

Background. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a 12-week summer break on school day physical activity and health-related fitness (HRF) in children from schools receiving a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP). Methods. Participants were school-aged children (N = 1,232; 624 girls and 608 boys; mean age = 9.5 ± 1.8 years) recruited from three low-income schools receiving a CSPAP. Physical activity and HRF levels were collected during the end of spring semester 2015 and again during the beginning of fall semester 2015. Physical activity was assessed using the Yamax DigiWalker CW600 pedometer. HRF measures consisted of body mass index (BMI) and the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER). Results. Results from a doubly MANCOVA analysis indicated that pedometer step counts decreased from 4,929 steps in the spring to 4,445 steps in the fall (mean difference = 484 steps; P < 0.001; Cohens d = 0.30) and PACER laps decreased from 31.2 laps in the spring to 25.8 laps in the fall (mean difference = 5.4 laps; P < 0.001; Cohens d = 0.33). Conclusions. Children from schools receiving a CSPAP intervention had lower levels of school day physical activity and cardiorespiratory endurance following a 12-week summer break.

Influence of Goal Setting on Physical Activity and Cardiorespiratory Endurance in Low-Income Children Enrolled in CSPAP Schools

ABSTRACT Background: Comprehensive school physical activity programming (CSPAP) has been shown to increase school day physical activity and health-related fitness. The use of goal setting may further enhance the outcomes of CSPAP. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of physical activity leader (PAL) goal setting on school day physical activity and cardiorespiratory endurance in low-income children from schools receiving CSPAP. Methods: Participants were 1704 children (mean age = 9.3 ± 1.6 years) recruited from 5 low-income elementary schools. The schools were stratified into schools where PALs employed goal-setting strategies and no goal-setting strategies. Schoolday step counts and progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run (PACER) laps were collected before CSPAP and after 36 weeks. Results: Sixth-graders who received goal setting displayed greater increases in school day step counts (Δ = 665 steps, P < .001, Cohen’s d = 0.38) and PACER laps (Δ = 23.5 laps, P < .001, Cohen’s d = 0.72) compared to children who did not receive goal setting. Discussion: The use of goal setting by school PALs led to greater improvements in physical activity and cardiorespiratory endurance in sixth-graders. Translation to Health Education Practice: Because physical activity and health-related fitness tend to decline as children transition into adolescence, the use of goal setting within school physical activity programming may attenuate these declines.