Yuichi Aiba

PKCβ regulates BCR-mediated IKK activation by facilitating the interaction between TAK1 and CARMA1

The B cell antigen receptor (BCR)–mediated activation of IκB kinase (IKK) and nuclear factor–κB require protein kinase C (PKC)β; however, the mechanism by which PKCβ regulates IKK is unclear. Here, we demonstrate that another protein kinase, TGFβ-activated kinase (TAK)1, is essential for IKK activation in response to BCR stimulation. TAK1 interacts with the phosphorylated CARMA1 (also known as caspase recruitment domain [CARD]11, Bimp3) and this interaction is mediated by PKCβ. IKK is also recruited to the CARMA1–Bcl10–mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue 1 adaptor complex in a PKCβ-dependent manner. Hence, our data suggest that phosphorylation of CARMA1, mediated by PKCβ, brings two key protein kinases, TAK1 and IKK, into close proximity, thereby allowing TAK1 to phosphorylate IKK.

Preferential localization of IgG memory B cells adjacent to contracted germinal centers

It has long been presumed that after leaving the germinal centers (GCs), memory B cells colonize the marginal zone or join the recirculating pool. Here we demonstrate the preferential localization of nitrophenol-chicken γ-globulin-induced CD38+IgG1+ memory B cells adjacent to contracted GCs in the spleen. The memory B cells in this region proliferated after secondary immunization, a response that was abolished by depletion of CD4+ T cells. We also found that these IgG1+ memory B cells could present antigen on their surface, and that this activity was required for their activation. These results implicate this peri-GC region as an important site for survival and reactivation of memory B cells.

Construction of an open-access database that integrates cross-reference information from the transcriptome and proteome of immune cells

MOTIVATION Although a huge amount of mammalian genomic data does become publicly available, there are still hurdles for biologists to overcome before such data can be fully exploited. One of the challenges for gaining biological insight from genomic data has been the inability to cross-reference transcriptomic and proteomic data using a single informational platform. To address this, we constructed an open-access database that enabled us to cross-reference transcriptomic and proteomic data obtained from immune cells. RESULTS The database, named RefDIC (Reference genomics Database of Immune Cells), currently contains: (i) quantitative mRNA profiles for human and mouse immune cells/tissues obtained using Affymetrix GeneChip technology; (ii) quantitative protein profiles for mouse immune cells obtained using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) followed by image analysis and mass spectrometry and (iii) various visualization tools to cross-reference the mRNA and protein profiles of immune cells. RefDIC is the first open-access database for immunogenomics and serves as an important information-sharing platform, enabling a focused genomic approach in immunology. AVAILABILITY All raw data and information can be accessed from http://refdic.rcai.riken.jp/. The microarray data is also available at http://cibex.nig.ac.jp/ under CIBEX accession no. CBX19, and http://www.ebi.ac.uk/pride/ under PRIDE accession numbers 2354-2378 and 2414.

Defective immune responses in mice lacking LUBAC‐mediated linear ubiquitination in B cells

The linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex (LUBAC) plays a crucial role in activating the canonical NF‐κB pathway, which is important for B‐cell development and function. Here, we describe a mouse model (B‐HOIPΔlinear) in which the linear polyubiquitination activity of LUBAC is specifically ablated in B cells. Canonical NF‐κB and ERK activation, mediated by the tumour necrosis factor (TNF) receptor superfamily receptors CD40 and TACI, was impaired in B cells from B‐HOIPΔlinear mice due to defective activation of the IKK complex; however, B‐cell receptor (BCR)‐mediated activation of the NF‐κB and ERK pathways was unaffected. B‐HOIPΔlinear mice show impaired B1‐cell development and defective antibody responses to thymus‐dependent and thymus‐independent II antigens. Taken together, these data suggest that LUBAC‐mediated linear polyubiquitination is essential for B‐cell development and activation, possibly via canonical NF‐κB and ERK activation induced by the TNF receptor superfamily, but not by the BCR.

ERKs Induce Expression of the Transcriptional Repressor Blimp-1 and Subsequent Plasma Cell Differentiation

The differentiation of B cells into antibody-producing plasma cells requires extracellular signal–regulated kinases. Differential Role for ERKs Given that cellular differentiation is associated with cell cycle arrest, the processes of differentiation and proliferation are thought to be mutually exclusive, and the transcriptional programs underlying these events are frequently stimulated by distinct extracellular cues. The extracellular signal–regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway is responsible for driving proliferation in many cell types, including immune cells, and thus is thought to be involved only in dividing cells (see the Perspective by Allman and Cancro). In B cells, the transcriptional program of proliferating cells is suppressed by the transcriptional repressor Blimp-1, which is required for the differentiation of B cells into antibody-presenting plasma cells, a terminally differentiated cell type. Through experiments with mice deficient in both ERK1 and ERK2 in B cells, Yasuda et al. provide evidence of a critical role for the ERKs in driving the differentiation of plasma cells and show that ERK signaling is required for the expression of Blimp-1. Together, these data expand the role of ERK signaling in B cells and should prompt investigation of the potential involvement of ERK proteins in the differentiation of other cell types. In immune cells, the positive role of the extracellular signal–regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway in cell cycle progression and survival is well established; however, it is unclear whether ERK signaling plays a role in cell differentiation. Here, we report that ERKs are essential for the differentiation of B cells into antibody-producing plasma cells and that ERKs induce the expression of Prdm1, which encodes Blimp-1, a transcriptional repressor and “master regulator” of plasma cell differentiation. Transgenic mice with conditional deletion of both ERK1 and ERK2 in germinal center (GC) B cells lacked plasma cells differentiated after GC formation, and memory B cells from these mice failed to differentiate into plasma cells. In addition, ERK1- and ERK2-deficient B cells exhibited impaired Prdm1 expression upon stimulation with antibody against CD40 in the presence of interleukin-4; conversely, enforced expression of Prdm1 in ERK1- and ERK2-deficient B cells restored the generation of plasma cells. Thus, our study suggests that cytokines stimulate ERKs to induce the production of Blimp-1 and that ERKs thereby contribute to the process of cellular differentiation.

Unique properties of memory B cells of different isotypes

Summary:  Memory antibody responses are typically seen to T‐cell‐dependent antigens and are characterized by the rapid production of high titers of high‐affinity antigen‐specific antibody. The hallmark of T‐cell‐dependent memory B cells is their expression of a somatically mutated, isotype‐switched B‐cell antigen receptor, features that are mainly generated in germinal centers. Classical studies have focused on isotype‐switched memory B cells (mainly IgG isotype) and demonstrated their unique intrinsic properties in terms of localization and responsiveness to antigen re‐exposure. However, recent advances in monitoring antigen‐experienced B cells have revealed the considerable heterogeneity of memory B cells, which include unswitched IgM+ and/or unmutated memory B cells. The IgM and IgG type memory B cells reside in distinct locations and appear to possess distinct origins and effector functions, together orchestrating humoral memory responses.

A murine thymic stromal cell line which may support the differentiation of CD4−8− thymocytes into CD4+8− αβ T cell receptor positive T cells

A fibroblastoid cell line TSt-4 was established from fetal thymus tissue of C57BL/6 mice. When fetal thymus (FT) cells or CD4-8- (DN) cells of adult thymuses were cultured on the monolayer of TSt-4, a considerable proportion of lymphocytes expressed CD4 or both CD4 and CD8 within 1 day, and the CD4+CD8- cells were maintained further while the CD4+8+ cells disappeared by Day 5. A large proportion of cells generated from DN cells but not FT cells was shown to express CD3 and T cell receptor alpha beta. Addition of recombinant interleukin (IL)-7 into the cultures resulted in a marked increase of cell recovery without virtual change in differentiation process of alpha beta lineage. The present work strongly suggests that thymic fibroblasts play an important role in T cell differentiation and IL-7 contributes to supporting proliferation of differentiated cells.

A minimally hypomorphic mutation in Btk resulting in reduced B cell numbers but no clinical disease

Reduced B cell numbers and a mutation in Btk are considered sufficient to make the diagnosis of X‐linked agammaglobulinaemia. In the process of conducting family studies, we identified a 58‐year‐old healthy man with an amino acid substitution, Y418H, in the adenosine‐5′‐triphosphate binding site of Btk. Immunofluorescence studies showed that this man had 0·85% CD19+ B cells (normal 4–18%) in the peripheral circulation and his monocytes were positive for Btk. He had borderline low serum immunoglobulins but normal titres to tetanus toxoid and multiple pneumococcal serotypes. To determine the functional consequences of the amino acid substitution, a Btk– chicken B cell line, DT40, was transfected with expression vectors producing wild‐type Btk or Y418H Btk. The transfected cells were stimulated with anti‐IgM and calcium flux and inositol triphosphate (IP3) production were measured. Cells bearing the mutant protein demonstrated consistently a 15–20% decrease in both calcium flux and IP3 production. These findings indicate that even a modest decrease in Btk function can impair B cell proliferation or survival. However, a mutation in Btk and reduced numbers of B cells are not always associated with clinical disease.

Extracellular Signal-Regulated Protein Kinase 2 Is Required for Efficient Generation of B Cells Bearing Antigen-Specific Immunoglobulin G

ABSTRACT Activation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) has been implicated in proliferation as well as differentiation in a wide variety of cell types. Using B-cell-specific gene-targeted mice, we report here that in T-cell-dependent immune responses, ERK2 is required to generate efficient immunoglobulin G (IgG) production. In its absence, the proportion of antigen-specific surface IgG1-bearing cells and the subsequent number of IgG1 antibody-secreting cells were decreased, despite apparently unimpaired class switch recombination. Notably, this defect was countered by overexpression of the antiapoptotic factor Bcl-2. Together, our results suggest that ERK2 plays a key role in efficient generation of antigen-specific IgG-bearing B cells by promoting their survival.

Termination by early deletion of Vβ8+ T cells of aged mice in response to staphylococcal enterotoxin B

The changes in the T cell repertoire of aging BALB/c mice include an increase of V beta 8 + T cells, most of which have a relatively low density of T cell receptors (TCR). We investigated the response of V beta 8 + T cells to staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB), a superantigen from a common bacterium, the anamnestic response to which is thought usually to be part of the defense against infection. The injection of an amount of SEB optimum for V beta 8 + T cell proliferation in young mice induced little or no proliferative response in aged mice, and within one or two days they died in shock with apoptotic cells in the spleen, a sign of T cell-shock caused by SEB. Flowcytometry analysis (FCA) 15 h after SEB injection, when cell division had not yet started, revealed the loss of 90% of V beta 8 + T cells in the blood and of 50% in the spleen in mice of all ages tested. However, conspicuous in the remaining V beta 8 + T cells in the spleens of the young mice but not in those of the aged mice, was an increased cellular complexity, as shown by the fact that light was strongly side scattered in FCA, indicating intracellular re-organization. The remaining T cells in the young could include progenitors for the expanding population of V beta 8 + T cells. As seen in lethal shock, V beta 8 + T cells in the aged are not unresponsive to SEB in vitro. They responded to the antigen by increasing the amount of TCR up to the level of that in young mice, but without proliferation. The proliferation arrest of V beta 8 + T cells of aged mice was found to be an intrinsic defect in in vitro cell mixture experiments, in which they were cocultured with young spleen cells which provided a complete immune microenvironment. It was simultaneously found in vitro that most of the V beta 8 + T cells from aged mice disappeared after antigen stimulation and that their disappearance was prevented by the presence of spleen cells from young mice, although they still did not proliferate. Taken all together the findings suggest that V beta 8+ T cells in the aged are at the end state of maturation and terminate by apoptotic death, causing T-cell shock in response to SEB.