Yves Laumonnier

Acetyl-Boswellic Acids Inhibit Lipopolysaccharide-Mediated TNF-α Induction in Monocytes by Direct Interaction with IκB Kinases

Expression of proinflammatory cytokines by monocytes is tightly regulated by transcription factors such as NF-κB. In this study, we show that, in LPS-stimulated human peripheral monocytes, the pentacyclic triterpenes acetyl-α-boswellic acid (AαBA) and acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKβBA) down-regulate the TNF-α expression. AαBA and AKβBA inhibited NF-κB signaling both in LPS-stimulated monocytes as detected by EMSA, as well as in a NF-κB-dependent luciferase gene reporter assay. By contrast, the luciferase expression driven by the IFN-stimulated response element was unaffected, implying specificity of the inhibitory effect observed. Both AαBA and AKβBA did not affect binding of recombinant p50/p65 and p50/c-Rel dimers to DNA binding sites as analyzed by surface plasmon resonance. Instead, both pentacyclic triterpenes inhibited the LPS-induced degradation of IκBα, as well as phosphorylation of p65 at Ser536 and its nuclear translocation. AαBA and AKβBA inhibited specifically the phosphorylation of recombinant IκBα and p65 by IκBα kinases (IKKs) immunoprecipitated from LPS-stimulated monocytes. In line with this, AαBA and AKβBA also bound to and inhibited the activities of active human recombinant GST-IKKα and His-IKKβ. The LPS-triggered induction of TNF-α in monocytes is dependent on IKK activity, as confirmed by IKK-specific antisense oligodeoxynucleotides. Thus, via their direct inhibitory effects on IKK, AαBA and AKβBA convey inhibition of NF-κB and subsequent down-regulation of TNF-α expression in activated human monocytes. These findings provide a molecular basis for the anti-inflammatory properties ascribed to AαBA- and AKβBA-containing drugs and suggest acetyl-boswellic acids as tools for the development of novel therapeutic interventions.

Plasmin Triggers Cytokine Induction in Human Monocyte-Derived Macrophages

Objective—Fibrinolytic activity is upregulated in atherosclerotic lesions, yet little is known about the role of plasmin in macrophage function. We postulated a direct effect of plasmin on human monocyte-derived macrophages. Methods and Results—Plasmin activates macrophages via the annexin A2 heterotetramer composed of annexin A2 and S100A10 with subsequent stimulation of Janus kinase JAK1/TYK2 signaling. JAK1/TYK2 leads to STAT3 activation, Akt-dependent NF-&kgr;B activation, and phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and mitogen-activated kinase p38. These signaling pathways trigger nuclear translocation of STAT3 and p65 transcription factors and the induction of the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-&agr; and IL-6. Inhibitors of JAK, p38, and NF-&kgr;B revealed that these signaling pathways are indispensable for the plasmin-mediated tumor necrosis factor-&agr; and IL-6 induction. By contrast, the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 activation is essential only for the IL-6 expression. The activation clearly depends on the proteolytic activity of plasmin, which cleaves the A2 subunit of the annexin A2 heterotetramer. Downregulation of each of the receptor subunits by antisense oligodeoxynucleotides abolished the plasmin-induced expression of proinflammatory cytokines stressing the crucial role the annexin A2 heterotetramer. Conclusions—Plasmin generated at sites of inflammation such as atherosclerotic lesions will trigger cytokine expression in human macrophages.

Human B Cells Secrete Granzyme B When Recognizing Viral Antigens in the Context of the Acute Phase Cytokine IL-21

Human B cells are currently not known to produce the proapoptotic protease granzyme B (GrB) in physiological settings. We have discovered that BCR stimulation with either viral Ags or activating Abs in the context of the acute phase cytokine IL-21 can induce the secretion of substantial amounts of GrB by human B cells. Importantly, GrB response to viral Ags was significantly stronger in B cells from subjects recently vaccinated against the corresponding viruses as compared with unvaccinated subjects. GrB-secreting B cells featured a homogeneous CD19+CD20+CD27−CD38−IgD− phenotype, improved survival, and enhanced expression of costimulatory, Ag-presenting and cell-adhesion molecules. B cell-derived GrB was enzymatically active and its induction required the activation of similar signaling pathways as those in CTLs. Our findings suggest that GrB-secreting B cells support the early antiviral immune response against viruses with endosomal entry pathways, thereby counteracting overwhelming viral replication at the beginning of an infection until virus-specific T cells from draining lymph nodes arrive at the site of infection. Our data may also explain the elevated serum GrB levels found in the early phase of various viral diseases.

Tolerance induction with T cell-dependent protein antigens induces regulatory sialylated IgGs

BACKGROUND Under inflammatory conditions, T cell-dependent (TD) protein antigens induce proinflammatory T- and B-cell responses. In contrast, tolerance induction by TD antigens without costimulation triggers the development of regulatory T cells. Under both conditions, IgG antibodies are generated, but whether they have different immunoregulatory functions remains elusive. OBJECTIVE It was shown recently that proinflammatory or anti-inflammatory effector functions of IgG molecules are determined by different Fc N-linked glycosylation patterns. We sought to examine the Fc glycosylation and anti-inflammatory quality of IgG molecules formed on TD tolerance induction. METHODS We administered chicken ovalbumin (OVA) with or without costimulus to mice and analyzed OVA-reactive IgG Fc glycosylation. The anti-inflammatory function of differentially glycosylated anti-OVA IgGs was further investigated in studies with dendritic cell cultures and in an in vivo model of allergic airway disease. Additionally, we analyzed the Fc glycosylation pattern of birch pollen-reactive serum IgGs after successful allergen-specific immunotherapy in patients. RESULTS Stimulation with TD antigens under inflammatory conditions induces plasma cells expressing low levels of α2,6-sialyltransferase and producing desialylated IgGs. In contrast, plasma cells induced on tolerance induction did not downregulate α2,6-sialyltransferase expression and secreted immunosuppressive sialylated IgGs that were sufficient to block antigen-specific T- and B-cell responses, dendritic cell maturation, and allergic airway inflammation. Importantly, successful specific immunotherapy in allergic patients also induced sialylated allergen-specific IgGs. CONCLUSIONS Our data show a novel antigen-specific immunoregulatory mechanism mediated by anti-inflammatory sialylated IgGs that are formed on TD tolerance induction. These findings might help to develop novel antigen-specific therapies for the treatment of allergy and autoimmunity.

TLR activation enhances C5a-induced pro-inflammatory responses by negatively modulating the second C5a receptor, C5L2.

TLR and complement activation ensures efficient clearance of infection. Previous studies documented synergism between TLRs and the receptor for the pro‐inflammatory complement peptide C5a (C5aR/CD88), and regulation of TLR‐induced pro‐inflammatory responses by C5aR, suggesting crosstalk between TLRs and C5aR. However, it is unclear whether and how TLRs modulate C5a‐induced pro‐inflammatory responses. We demonstrate a marked positive modulatory effect of TLR activation on cell sensitivity to C5a in vitro and ex vivo and identify an underlying mechanistic target. Pre‐exposure of PBMCs and whole blood to diverse TLR ligands or bacteria enhanced C5a‐induced pro‐inflammatory responses. This effect was not observed in TLR4 signalling‐deficient mice. TLR‐induced hypersensitivity to C5a did not result from C5aR upregulation or modulation of C5a‐induced Ca2+ mobilization. Rather, TLRs targeted another C5a receptor, C5L2 (acting as a negative modulator of C5aR), by reducing C5L2 activity. TLR‐induced hypersensitivity to C5a was mimicked by blocking C5L2 and was not observed in C5L2KO mice. Furthermore, TLR activation inhibited C5L2 expression upon C5a stimulation. These findings identify a novel pathway of crosstalk within the innate immune system that amplifies innate host defense at the TLR‐complement interface. Unravelling the mutually regulated activities of TLRs and complement may reveal new therapeutic avenues to control inflammation.

Monitoring and Cell-Specific Deletion of C5aR1 Using a Novel Floxed GFP-C5aR1 Reporter Knock-in Mouse

Many of the biological properties of C5a are mediated through activation of its receptor (C5aR1), the expression of which has been demonstrated convincingly on myeloid cells, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages. In contrast, conflicting results exist regarding C5aR1 expression in dendritic cells (DCs) and lymphoid lineage cells. In this article, we report the generation of a floxed GFP-C5aR1 reporter knock-in mouse. Using this mouse strain, we confirmed strong C5aR1 expression in neutrophils from bone marrow, blood, lung, and spleen, as well as in peritoneal macrophages. Further, we show C5aR1 expression in lung eosinophils, lung- and lamina propria–resident and alveolar macrophages, bone marrow–derived DCs, and lung-resident CD11b+ and monocyte-derived DCs, whereas intestinal and pulmonary CD103+ DCs stained negative. Also, some splenic NKT cells expressed GFP, whereas naive NK cells and B2 cells lacked GFP expression. Finally, we did not observe any C5aR1 expression in naive or activated CD4+ Th cells in vitro or in vivo. Mating the floxed GFP-C5aR1 mouse strain with LysMCre mice, we were able to specifically delete C5aR1 in neutrophils and macrophages, whereas C5aR1 expression was retained in DCs. In summary, our findings suggest that C5aR1 expression in mice is largely restricted to cells of the myeloid lineage. The novel floxed C5aR1 reporter knock-in mouse will prove useful to track C5aR1 expression in experimental models of acute and chronic inflammation and to conditionally delete C5aR1 in immune cells.

Anaphylatoxins coordinate innate and adaptive immune responses in allergic asthma.

Allergic asthma is a chronic disease of the airways in which maladaptive Th2 and Th17 immune responses drive airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), eosinophilic and neutrophilic airway inflammation and mucus overproduction. Airway epithelial and pulmonary vascular endothelial cells in concert with different resident and monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DC) play critical roles in allergen sensing and consecutive activation of TH cells and their differentiation toward TH2 and TH17 effector or regulatory T cells (Treg). Further, myeloid-derived regulatory cells (MDRC) act on TH cells and either suppress or enhance their activation. The complement-derived anaphylatoxins (AT) C3a and C5a are generated during initial antigen encounter and regulate the development of maladaptive immunity at allergen sensitization. Here, we will review the complex role of ATs in activation and modulation of different DC populations, MDRCs and CD4⁺ TH cells. We will also discuss the potential impact of ATs on the regulation of the pulmonary stromal compartment as an important means to regulate DC functions.

C5a regulates NKT and NK cell functions in sepsis.

Complement, NKT, and NK cells play critical roles in the first line defense against pathogens. Functional roles for both C5a receptors, that is, complement receptor C5a (C5aR) and C5a receptor-like 2 (C5L2), in sepsis have been demonstrated. However, the role of C5a in innate lymphocyte activation during sepsis remains elusive. In this article, we show that naive NKT and NK cells already express high levels of C5aR and minor levels of C5L2 mRNA, but no protein. Upon Escherichia coli-induced sepsis, we found C5aR surface expression on subpopulations of NKT and NK cells, suggesting rapid translation into C5aR protein on bacterial encounter. Importantly, significantly increased survival in the absence of C5aR, NKT, and NK cells, but not of C5L2, was associated with reduced IFN-γ and TNF-α serum levels. Sepsis induction in C5aR+/C5aR− mixed bone marrow chimeras identified cognate engagement of C5aR on NKT cells as an important factor for the recruitment of NKT cells. Furthermore, we found synergistic interaction between C5aR and TLRs enhancing the production of TNF-α and IFN-γ from NKT and NK cells in cocultures with dendritic cells. Our results identify C5aR activation as a novel pathway driving detrimental effects of NKT and NK cells during early experimental sepsis.

C5a receptor signalling in dendritic cells controls the development of maladaptive Th2 and Th17 immunity in experimental allergic asthma

The pathways underlying dendritic cell (DC) activation in allergic asthma are incompletely understood. Here we demonstrate that adoptive transfer of ovalbumin-pulsed wild-type (wt) but not of C5a receptor-deficient (C5aR−/−) bone marrow (BM)-derived DCs (BMDCs) induced mixed T helper type 2 (Th2)/Th17 maladaptive immunity, associated with severe airway hyperresponsiveness, mucus production, and mixed eosinophilic/neutrophilic inflammation. Mechanistically, antigen uptake, processing, and CD11b expression were reduced in C5aR−/− BMDCs. Further, interleukin (IL)-1β, -6, and -23 production were impaired resulting in reduced Th17 cell differentiation, associated with accelerated activated T-cell death in vitro and in vivo. Surprisingly, we found an increased frequency of CD11bhiCD11cintGr1+F4/80+ cells, expressing arginase and nitric oxide synthase in C5aR−/− BM preparations. Intratracheal administration of ovalbumin-pulsed wt DCs and sorted CD11bhiCD11cintGr1+F4/80+ C5aR−/− cells reduced Th2 immune responses in vivo. Together, we uncover novel roles for C5aR in Th17 differentiation, T-cell survival, and differentiation of a DC-suppressor population controlling Th2 immunity in experimental allergic asthma.

Thrombin-induced expression of endothelial CX3CL1 potentiates monocyte CCL2 production and transendothelial migration

CX3CL1 (fractalkine, neurotactin) is the sole CX3C chemokine. It induces monocyte locomotion in its cleaved form, but in its membrane‐anchored form, it also acts as an adhesion molecule. The expression of CX3CL1 is up‐regulated in endothelial cells by proinflammatory cytokines such as IL‐1 or TNF‐α. Here, we studied the effect of the serine protease thrombin on endothelial CX3CL1 induction and its putative relevance for monocyte function. In HUVEC, thrombin triggered a time‐ and concentration‐dependent expression of CX3CL1 at the mRNA and the protein level as shown by RT‐PCR, Western immunoblotting, and flow cytometric analysis. Thrombin induced CX3CL1 by activating protease‐activated receptor 1 (PAR1) as demonstrated by the use of PAR1‐activating peptide and the PAR1‐specific antagonist SCH 79797. The thrombin‐induced CX3CL1 expression was NF‐κB‐dependent, as shown by EMSA, ELISA, and by inhibition of the NF‐κB signaling pathway by the IκB kinase inhibitor acety‐11‐keto‐β‐boswellic acid or by transient overexpression of a transdominant‐negative form of IκBα. Upon cocultivation of human monocytes with HUVEC, the thrombin‐dependent induction of membrane‐anchored CX3CL1 in HUVEC triggered monocyte adhesion and an enhanced release of the MCP‐1/CCL2 by monocytes and potentiated the monocyte transendothelial migration. Accordingly, the recombinant extracellular domain of CX3CL1 induced CCL2 release by monocytes. Thus, the thrombin‐induced monocyte/endothelial cell cross‐talk mediated by increased CX3CL1 expression potentiates the CCL2 chemokine generation that might contribute to the recruitment of monocytes into inflamed areas.