Zahra Shekarkhar

Latino/a Student Misbehavior and School Punishment

Although Latino/as are the fastest growing segment of the U.S. student population, Latino/a youth face a number of educational hurdles, such as disproportionate school punishment. This topic is particularly relevant today in the midst of the current social, political, and economic debate over the influence of Latino/a immigration in the US school system. This study draws from the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002 and utilizes hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to analyze the relationships between gender, generational status, misbehavior, and school punishment for 7,250 Latino/a and White students. Findings reveal that Latino/a students, regardless of gender or generational status, are not misbehaving more than White students. For school punitive measures, however, third-generation Latino and Latina students are more likely to be punished. The implications of the disparate school punishment patterns for Latino/a students in the US school system are discussed more generally.

Social Control Theory and School Misbehavior: Examining the Role of Race and Ethnicity

Social control theory has been successfully utilized to investigate and explain school misbehavior; however, only a few studies have focused on the complex role of race and ethnicity. With a diverse and growing racial and ethnic minority population, exploring whether race and ethnicity moderate the relationship between social control theory and school misbehavior is warranted. This study utilizes data from the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002, a nationally representative sample of 10th-grade students, to examine whether the relationship between social control theory and school misbehavior varies by race and ethnicity. The findings suggest that the relationship between elements of the social bond and school misbehavior varies across racial and ethnic groups. This study discusses the importance of focusing on race and ethnicity in criminological research as the United States becomes increasingly diverse.

Gender, Self-Control, and Offending Behaviors Among Latino Youth

Using data from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN), the current study investigates the empirical validity of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s propositions linking gender, self-control, and offending behaviors across a large and diverse sample of Latino youth. According to their theory, differences in self-control- that are influenced by differences in parenting practices—should account for differential offending across race/ethnicity and gender. Consistent with their theory, results found males to have lower self-control and greater involvement in self-reported violent and property offending compared to females. Furthermore, Latino youth with lower self-control were more likely to report violent and property offending; however, the gender gap observed for property and violent offending was not accounted for by low self-control or parenting. In fact, none of the parenting measures (warmth, hostility, monitoring) differed for males and females and they were not found to influence involvement in offending for males or females. Low self-control predicted violent offending for males and females separately, but it predicted property offending only for males. In addition to mentioning limitations and future research, findings are discussed as they relate to theory and prior research on self-control.

The “Model Minority” Victim: Immigration, Gender, and Asian American Vulnerabilities to Violence at School

Although previous research has demonstrated that immigration and gender may be related to victimization within U.S. schools, this study explores how immigration and gender are related to the victimization of Asian American youth within U.S. schools. Multilevel analyses that draw from the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 suggest some important results. For instance, Asian American immigrant youth generally have an increased likelihood of being victimized at school. The results also suggest that Asian American immigrant girls are relatively more likely to endure school victimization. The implications of Asian American immigrant youths’ increased vulnerabilities to violence at school are discussed.

Gender, Immigration, and School Victimization

Abstract Research demonstrates that the psychological well-being, health, and educational progress and success are negatively influenced by school victimization. It is also known that gender, generational status, and race and ethnicity are linked to distinct school experiences for youth. What remains uncertain is how the intersection of gender, generational status, and race and ethnicity are linked to the school victimization of the fastest growing segment of the U.S. population—youth in immigrant families. Logistic regression analyses, drawing on the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002, suggest complex results that are relevant to these issues. For example, findings indicate that there is a parallel between assimilation and school victimization, especially for Latina and African American female youth. The implications of the evident gender, generational, and racial and ethnic disparities in school victimization are discussed more generally.

Punishing the Children of Immigrants: Race, Ethnicity, Generational Status, Student Misbehavior, and School Discipline

Using segmented assimilation theory, this study examines whether the children of immigrants’ experiences with being disciplined at school are disproportionate. This study draws from the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002 and utilizes multilevel techniques to analyze the relationships between race, ethnicity, generational status, misbehavior, and school discipline. Findings reveal that Black/African American second- and third-plus generation as well as Latina/o American third-plus generation youth have increased odds of being disciplined despite having similar levels of misbehavior as their White American peers. The implications of the racial and ethnic, as well as generational, disparities in school discipline practices are discussed.

Why is prostitution criminalized? An alternative viewpoint on the construction of sex work

Prostitution/sex work remains criminalized in most areas of the United States. While it can be sufficiently argued that prostitution is a dangerous occupation, the assumptions that the criminal law are prefaced on are not necessarily substantiated with sufficient evidence. Alternative constructions of prostitution such as decriminalization or legalization are backed by more support and can be asserted to be more just or fair from a legal standpoint and a public health perspective. Throughout the course of this critical review the assumptions on which prostitution rests are examined, along with who is potentially advantaged by the current construction and the legal fictions of the current law. Finally, alternative constructions are addressed that could be advanced and argue for prostitution to no longer be criminalized.

Breaking Stereotypes and School Punishment: Family Socioeconomic Status, Test Scores, Academic and Sport Activities, Backlash, and Racial and Ethnic Discipline Disparities

The disproportionate punishment of racial and ethnic minority adolescents is a serious problem within schools. Few studies, however, consider factors outside of school misbehavior that may moderate this relationship. This study extends research on this topic by considering whether stereotypes moderate the school punishment of racial and ethnic minorities. This study utilizes multilevel modeling techniques to examine whether and how stereotypes based on family socioeconomic status, test scores, and school-based activities moderate racial and ethnic minority adolescents’ odds of being punished. Adolescents who do not conform to racial and ethnic stereotypes are more likely to be punished. The findings that suggest that stereotypes may be linked to increased school punishment for racial and ethnic minorities are discussed.

Victimization, urbanicity, and the relevance of context: school routines, race and ethnicity, and adolescent violence

The United States is undergoing a historical racial and ethnic demographic shift. There is limited criminological research exploring if and how these changes influence variation in the relationship between routine activity theory and adolescent violence. Although the link between routine activities and victimization has been tested and well established, criminologists have questioned if routine activities can explain adolescent violence across different social contexts. Prior research demonstrates that there are potential nuances in the theoretical connections between routine activities and victimization, particularly when considering race and ethnicity. This study builds on previous research by questioning if the elements of routine activities predict victimization across predominately urban, rural, and suburban schools. The implications of the relevance of school context in the relationships between routine activities and adolescent victimization will also be discussed more generally.

School-Based Activities, Misbehavior, Discipline, and Racial and Ethnic Disparities.

School-based discipline can negatively shape the educational outcomes of students, particularly for racial and ethnic minorities. Because racial and ethnic minority youth are at risk for educational failure and marginalized within schools, academic and sport extracurricular activities are often presented as a means to ameliorate educational risk factors. Little is known, however, about the relationship between involvement in these activities and school-based discipline, particularly for racial and ethnic minority youth. This study uses data from the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 and incorporates multilevel modeling techniques to examine whether the relationship between academic and sport extracurricular activities, misbehavior, and school-based discipline varies by race and ethnicity. This study suggests that while academic and sport extracurricular activities reduce the likelihood of school-based discipline for White students, the relationships for racial and ethnic minority are complex. The implications of the racial and ethnic disparity in school-based discipline in the United States are discussed.