Zara Mehrabian

Neuroprotective effects of bilobalide, a component of the Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761), in gerbil global brain ischemia

The neuroprotective effect of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) against ischemic injury has been demonstrated in animal models. In this study, we compared the protective effect of bilobalide, a purified terpene lactone from EGb 761, and EGb 761 against ischemic injury. We measured neuronal loss and the levels of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)-encoded cytochrome oxidase (COX) subunit III mRNA in vulnerable hippocampal regions of gerbils. At 7 days of reperfusion after 5 min of transient global forebrain ischemia, a significant increase in neuronal death and a significant decrease in COX III mRNA were observed in the hippocampal CA1 neurons. Oral administration of EGb 761 at 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg/day and bilobalide at 3 and 6 mg/kg/day for 7 days before ischemia progressively protected CA1 neurons from death and from ischemia-induced reductions in COX III mRNA. In addition, both bilobalide and EGb 761 protected against ischemia-induced reductions in COX III mRNA in CA1 neurons prior to their death, at 1 day of reperfusion. These results suggest that oral administration of bilobalide and EGb 761 protect against ischemia-induced neuron death and reductions in mitochondrial gene expression.

Rodent Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy (rAION) Induces Regional Retinal Ganglion Cell Apoptosis with a Unique Temporal Pattern

PURPOSE Nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION) results in optic nerve damage with retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss. An NAION model, rodent anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (rAION), was used to determine AION-associated mechanisms of RGC death and associated regional retinal changes. METHODS rAION was induced in male Wistar rats, and the retinas analyzed at various times after induction. RGCs were positively identified by both retrograde fluorogold labeling and brain-expressed X-linked protein-1/2 (Bex1/2) immunoreactivity. RGC death was analyzed by fluorescein-tagged annexin-V labeling (FITC-annexin-V), as well as by terminal nucleotide nick-end labeling (TUNEL). Retinal flatmount preparations enabled regional retinal analysis of labeled dying cells. Apoptosis pathway activation was confirmed by Western analysis, with an antibody that recognizes cleaved caspase-3. RESULTS Post-rAION, RGCs die by apoptosis over a longer period than previously recognized. Cleaved caspase-3 immunoreactivity was greatest between 11 and 15 days. rAION-induced RGC death occurs regionally, with sparing of large contiguous regions of RGCs. CONCLUSIONS rAION results in later RGC death than in traumatic optic nerve damage models. Apoptosis, measured by FITC-annexin, occurs maximally in the second to third week after infarct. Cleaved caspase-3 activation confirms that after rAION, RGCs undergo apoptosis by the caspase activation pathway. The regional pattern in dying RGCs after rAION implies that a measure of retinotopic organization occurs in the rodent optic nerve. The prolonged period from insult to death suggests that the window for successful treatment after ON infarct may be longer than previously recognized.

Adaptation of microplate-based respirometry for hippocampal slices and analysis of respiratory capacity.

Multiple neurodegenerative disorders are associated with altered mitochondrial bioenergetics. Although mitochondrial O2 consumption is frequently measured in isolated mitochondria, isolated synaptic nerve terminals (synaptosomes), or cultured cells, the absence of mature brain circuitry is a remaining limitation. Here we describe the development of a method that adapts the Seahorse Extracellular Flux Analyzer (XF24) for the microplate‐based measurement of hippocampal slice O2 consumption. As a first evaluation of the technique, we compared whole‐slice bioenergetics with previous measurements made with synaptosomes or cultured neurons. We found that mitochondrial respiratory capacity and O2 consumption coupled to ATP synthesis could be estimated in cultured or acute hippocampal slices with preserved neural architecture. Mouse organotypic hippocampal slices oxidizing glucose displayed mitochondrial O2 consumption that was well coupled, as determined by the sensitivity to the ATP synthase inhibitor oligomycin. However, stimulation of respiration by uncoupler was modest (<120% of basal respiration) compared with previous measurements in cells or synaptosomes, though enhanced slightly (to ∼150% of basal respiration) by acute addition of the mitochondrial complex I‐linked substrate pyruvate. These findings suggest a high basal utilization of respiratory capacity in slices and a limitation of glucose‐derived substrate for maximal respiration. The improved throughput of microplate‐based hippocampal respirometry over traditional O2 electrode‐based methods is conducive to neuroprotective drug screening. When coupled with cell type‐specific pharmacology or genetic manipulations, the ability to measure O2 consumption efficiently from whole slices should advance our understanding of mitochondrial roles in physiology and neuropathology.

Real-time Visualization of Cytoplasmic Calpain Activation and Calcium Deregulation in Acute Glutamate Excitotoxicity

Although calpain (EC 3.4.22) protease activation was suggested to contribute to excitotoxic delayed calcium deregulation (DCD) via proteolysis of Na+/Ca2+ exchanger 3 (NCX3), cytoplasmic calpain activation in relation to DCD has never been visualized in real‐time. We employed a calpain fluorescence resonance energy transfer substrate to simultaneously image calpain activation and calcium deregulation in live cortical neurons. A calpain inhibitor‐sensitive decline in fluorescence resonance energy transfer was observed at 39 ± 5 min after the occurrence of DCD in neurons exposed to continuous glutamate (100 μM). Inhibition of calpain by calpeptin did not delay the onset of DCD, recovery from DCD‐like reversible calcium elevations, or cell death despite inhibiting α‐spectrin processing by > 90%. NCXs reversed during glutamate exposure, the NCX antagonist KB‐R7943 prolonged the time to DCD, and significant NCX3 cleavage following 90 min of glutamate exposure was not observed. Our findings suggest that robust calpain activation associated with acute glutamate toxicity occurs only after a sustained loss in calcium homeostasis. Processing of NCX3 or other calpain substrates is unlikely to be the primary cause of acute excitotoxicity in cortical neurons. However, a role for calpain as a contributing factor or in response to milder glutamate insults is not excluded.

Postischemic Oxidative Stress Promotes Mitochondrial Metabolic Failure in Neurons and Astrocytes

Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction have been closely associated in many subcellular, cellular, animal, and human studies of both acute brain injury and neurodegenerative diseases. Our animal models of brain injury caused by cardiac arrest illustrate this relationship and demonstrate that both oxidative molecular modifications and mitochondrial metabolic impairment are exacerbated by reoxygenation of the brain using 100% ventilatory O2 compared to lower levels that maintain normoxemia. Numerous molecular mechanisms may be responsible for mitochondrial dysfunction caused by oxidative stress, including oxidation and inactivation of mitochondrial proteins, promotion of the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition, and consumption of metabolic cofactors and intermediates, for example, NAD(H). Moreover, the relative contribution of these mechanisms to cell injury and death is likely different among different types of brain cells, for example, neurons and astrocytes. In order to better understand these oxidative stress mechanisms and their relevance to neurologic disorders, we have undertaken studies with primary cultures of astrocytes and neurons exposed to O2 and glucose deprivation and reoxygenation and compared the results of these studies to those using a rat model of neonatal asphyxic brain injury. These results support the hypothesis that release and or consumption of mitochondrial NAD(H) is at least partially responsible for respiratory inhibition, particularly in neurons.

Regulation of mitochondrial gene expression by energy demand in neural cells

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) encodes critical subunit proteins of the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) complex that generates ATP. This study tested the hypothesis that mitochondrial gene expression in neural cells is regulated by energy demand, as modified via stimulation of cellular sodium transport. Exposure of PC12S cells to the sodium ionophore monensin (250 nm) for 1–6 h caused a 13–60% decrease in cellular ATP (from 15 to 5 nmol per mg protein at 6 h). Levels of mitochondrial DNA‐encoded mRNAs (mt‐mRNAs) increased significantly (150%) within the first hour of exposure to monensin, and then decreased significantly (50%) at 3–4 h. Levels of mtDNA‐encoded 12S rRNA and nuclear DNA‐encoded OXPHOS subunit mRNAs were not significantly affected. Exposure of primary cerebellar neuronal cultures to the excitatory amino acid glutamate caused a similar rapid and significant increase followed by a significant decrease in cell mt‐mRNA levels. The monensin‐induced initial increase in mt‐mRNA levels was abolished by pretreatment with actinomycin D or by reducing extracellular sodium ion concentration. The monensin‐induced delayed reduction in mt‐mRNA levels was accelerated in the presence of actinomycin D, and was accompanied by a 67% reduction in the half‐life (from 3.6 to 1.2 h). Exposure of PC12S cells to 2‐deoxy‐d‐glucose significantly decreased cellular ATP levels (from 14.2 to 7.1 nmol per mg protein at 8 h), and increased mt‐mRNA levels. These results suggest a physiological transcriptional mechanism of regulation of mitochondrial gene expression by energy demand and a post‐transcriptional regulation that is independent of energy status of the cell.

The amino acid sequence of a type I copper protein with an unusual serine- and hydroxyproline-rich C-terminal domain isolated from cucumber peelings

We have determined the amino acid sequence of a small copper protein isolated from cucumber peelings. This cupredoxin contains 137 amino acids including a pyroglutamate as the first residue. The N‐terminal 110 amino acid‐long domain shows 30–37% identity to 2 other cupredoxins, stellacyanin and cucumber basic blue protein. A unique feature of this protein is a 27 amino acid‐long, C‐terminal domain rich in 4‐hydroxyproline and serine and resembling certain plant cell wall proteins. The prolines in this domain are hydroxylated to a different extent depending on the surrounding sequence.

Dendrimers Target the Ischemic Lesion in Rodent and Primate Models of Nonarteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy.

Introduction Polyamidoamine dendrimer nanoparticles (~ 4 nanometers) are inert polymers that can be linked to biologically active compounds. These dendrimers selectively target and accumulate in inflammatory cells upon systemic administration. Dendrimer-linked compounds enable sustained release of therapeutic compounds directly at the site of damage. The purpose of this study was to determine if dendrimers can be used to target the optic nerve (ON) ischemic lesion in our rodent and nonhuman primate models of nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION), a disease affecting >10,000 individuals in the US annually, and for which there currently is no effective treatment. Methods NAION was induced in male Long-Evans rats (rNAION) and in one adult male rhesus monkey (pNAION) using previously described procedures. Dendrimers were covalently linked to near-infrared cyanine-5 fluorescent dye (D-Cy5) and injected both intravitreally and systemically (in the rats) or just systemically (in the monkey) to evaluate D-Cy5 tissue accumulation in the eye and optic nerve following induction of NAION. Results Following NAION induction, Cy-5 dendrimers selectively accumulated in astrocytes and circulating macrophages. Systemic dendrimer administration provided the best penetration of the ON lesion site when injected shortly after induction. Systemic administration 1 day post-induction in the pNAION model gave localization similar to that seen in the rats. Conclusions Dendrimers selectively target the ischemic ON lesion after induction of both rNAION and pNAION. Systemic nanoparticle-linked therapeutics thus may provide a powerful, targeted and safe approach to NAION treatment by providing sustained and focused treatment of the cells directly affected by ischemia.

Rapid Detection of an ABT-737-Sensitive Primed for Death State in Cells Using Microplate-Based Respirometry

Cells that exhibit an absolute dependence on the anti-apoptotic BCL-2 protein for survival are termed “primed for death” and are killed by the BCL-2 antagonist ABT-737. Many cancers exhibit a primed phenotype, including some that are resistant to conventional chemotherapy due to high BCL-2 expression. We show here that 1) stable BCL-2 overexpression alone can induce a primed for death state and 2) that an ABT-737-induced loss of functional cytochrome c from the electron transport chain causes a reduction in maximal respiration that is readily detectable by microplate-based respirometry. Stable BCL-2 overexpression sensitized non-tumorigenic MCF10A mammary epithelial cells to ABT-737-induced caspase-dependent apoptosis. Mitochondria within permeabilized BCL-2 overexpressing cells were selectively vulnerable to ABT-737-induced cytochrome c release compared to those from control-transfected cells, consistent with a primed state. ABT-737 treatment caused a dose-dependent impairment of maximal O2 consumption in MCF10A BCL-2 overexpressing cells but not in control-transfected cells or in immortalized mouse embryonic fibroblasts lacking both BAX and BAK. This impairment was rescued by delivering exogenous cytochrome c to mitochondria via saponin-mediated plasma membrane permeabilization. An ABT-737-induced reduction in maximal O2 consumption was also detectable in SP53, JeKo-1, and WEHI-231 B-cell lymphoma cell lines, with sensitivity correlating with BCL-2:MCL-1 ratio and with susceptibility (SP53 and JeKo-1) or resistance (WEHI-231) to ABT-737-induced apoptosis. Multiplexing respirometry assays to ELISA-based determination of cytochrome c redistribution confirmed that respiratory inhibition was associated with cytochrome c release. In summary, cell-based respiration assays were able to rapidly identify a primed for death state in cells with either artificially overexpressed or high endogenous BCL-2. Rapid detection of a primed for death state in individual cancers by “bioenergetics-based profiling” may eventually help identify the subset of patients with chemoresistant but primed tumors who can benefit from treatment that incorporates a BCL-2 antagonist.

The amino acid sequence of the spinach basic cupredoxin plantacyanin

We describe the amino acid sequence of plantacyanin isolated from spinach leaves. This small basic copper‐binding plant cupredoxin contains 91 amino acids (accession no.S70746) and its theoretical average mass of 9788.2 Da was confirmed by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. When compared to the sequences of other plant cupredoxins, the most similar homologs were cucumber basic blue protein and stellacyanin from Laquer tree with 44‐58% identical residues. Other known plant cupredoxins were significantly less similar which may allow to divide the plant cupredoxins into two subgroups, the single‐domain cupredoxins (plantacyanin, cucumber basic blue protein and stellacyanin) and the two‐domain, hydroxyproline‐containing cupredoxins (cucumber peeling cupredoxin, basic blue protein from Arabidopsis thaliana and horseradish umecyanin).