Zhengfan Jiang

ERIS, an endoplasmic reticulum IFN stimulator, activates innate immune signaling through dimerization

We report here the identification and characterization of a protein, ERIS, an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) IFN stimulator, which is a strong type I IFN stimulator and plays a pivotal role in response to both non–self-cytosolic RNA and dsDNA. ERIS (also known as STING or MITA) resided exclusively on ER membrane. The ER retention/retrieval sequence RIR was found to be critical to retain the protein on ER membrane and to maintain its integrity. ERIS was dimerized on innate immune challenges. Coumermycin-induced ERIS dimerization led to strong and fast IFN induction, suggesting that dimerization of ERIS was critical for self-activation and subsequent downstream signaling.

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) Receptor-Associated Kinase-Dependent IL-1-Induced Signaling Complexes Phosphorylate TAK1 and TAB2 at the Plasma Membrane and Activate TAK1 in the Cytosol

ABSTRACT Interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor-associated kinase (IRAK) plays an important role in the sequential formation and activation of IL-1-induced signaling complexes. Previous studies showed that IRAK is recruited to the IL-1-receptor complex, where it is hyperphosphorylated. We now find that the phosphorylated IRAK in turn recruits TRAF6 to the receptor complex (complex I), which differs from the previous concept that IRAK interacts with TRAF6 after it leaves the receptor. IRAK then brings TRAF6 to TAK1, TAB1, and TAB2, which are preassociated on the membrane before stimulation to form the membrane-associated complex II. The formation of complex II leads to the phosphorylation of TAK1 and TAB2 on the membrane by an unknown kinase, followed by the dissociation of TRAF6-TAK1-TAB1-TAB2 (complex III) from IRAK and consequent translocation of complex III to the cytosol. The formation of complex III and its interaction with additional cytosolic factors lead to the activation of TAK1, resulting in NF-κB and JNK activation. Phosphorylated IRAK remains on the membrane and eventually is ubiquitinated and degraded. Taken together, the new data reveal that IRAK plays a critical role in mediating the association and dissociation of IL-1-induced signaling complexes, functioning as an organizer and transporter in IL-1-dependent signaling.

Activation of STAT6 by STING Is Critical for Antiviral Innate Immunity

STAT6 plays a prominent role in adaptive immunity by transducing signals from extracellular cytokines. We now show that STAT6 is required for innate immune signaling in response to virus infection. Viruses or cytoplasmic nucleic acids trigger STING (also named MITA/ERIS) to recruit STAT6 to the endoplasmic reticulum, leading to STAT6 phosphorylation on Ser(407) by TBK1 and Tyr(641), independent of JAKs. Phosphorylated STAT6 then dimerizes and translocates to the nucleus to induce specific target genes responsible for immune cell homing. Virus-induced STAT6 activation is detected in all cell-types tested, in contrast to the cell-type specific role of STAT6 in cytokine signaling, and Stat6(-/-) mice are susceptible to virus infection. Thus, STAT6 mediates immune signaling in response to both cytokines at the plasma membrane, and virus infection at the endoplasmic reticulum.

A toll-like receptor 2-responsive lipid effector pathway protects mammals against skin infections with gram-positive bacteria.

ABSTRACT flake (flk), an N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-induced recessive germ line mutation of C57BL/6 mice, impairs the clearance of skin infections by Streptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus, gram-positive pathogens that elicit innate immune responses by activating Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) (K. Takeda and S. Akira, Cell. Microbiol. 5:143-153, 2003). Positional cloning and sequencing revealed that flk is a novel allele of the stearoyl coenzyme A desaturase 1 gene (Scd1). flake homozygotes show reduced sebum production and are unable to synthesize the monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) palmitoleate (C16:1) and oleate (C18:1), both of which are bactericidal against gram-positive (but not gram-negative) organisms in vitro. However, intradermal MUFA administration to S. aureus-infected mice partially rescues the flake phenotype, which indicates that an additional component of the sebum may be required to improve bacterial clearance. In normal mice, transcription of Scd1—a gene with numerous NF-κB elements in its promoter—is strongly and specifically induced by TLR2 signaling. Similarly, the SCD1 gene is induced by TLR2 signaling in a human sebocyte cell line. These observations reveal the existence of a regulated, lipid-based antimicrobial effector pathway in mammals and suggest new approaches to the treatment or prevention of infections with gram-positive bacteria.

IL-1-induced NFκB and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation diverge at IL-1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK)

Mutant I1A cells, lacking IL-1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK) mRNA and protein, have been used to study the involvement of IRAK in NFκB and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation. A series of IRAK deletion constructs were expressed in I1A cells, which were then tested for their ability to respond to IL-1. Both the N-terminal death domain and the C-terminal region of IRAK are required for IL-1-induced NFκB and JNK activation, whereas the N-proximal undetermined domain is required for the activation of NFκB but not JNK. The phosphorylation and ubiquitination of IRAK deletion mutants correlate tightly with their ability to activate NFκB in response to IL-1, but IRAK can mediate IL-1-induced JNK activation without being phosphorylated. These studies reveal that the IL-1-induced signaling pathways leading to NFκB and JNK activation diverge either at IRAK or at a point nearer to the receptor.

Pellino 1 is required for interleukin-1 (IL-1)-mediated signaling through its interaction with the IL-1 receptor-associated kinase 4 (IRAK4)-IRAK-tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) complex

The signaling pathway downstream of the mammalian interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R)/Toll-like receptor (TLR) is evolutionally conserved with that mediated by theDrosophila Toll protein. Toll initiates its signal through the adapter molecule Tube and the serine-threonine kinase Pelle. Pelle is highly homologous to members of the IL-1R-associated kinase (IRAK) family in mammals. Recently, a novel Pelle-interacting protein called Pellino was identified in Drosophila. We now report a mammalian counterpart of Pellino, termed Pellino 1, which is required for NFκB activation and IL-8 gene expression in response to IL-1, probably through its signal-dependent interaction with IRAK4, IRAK, and the tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6). The Pellino 1-IRAK-IRAK4-TRAF6 signaling complex is likely to be intermediate, located between the IL-1 receptor complex and the TAK1 complex in the IL-1 pathway.

R-form LPS, the master key to the activation ofTLR4/MD-2-positive cells

Lipopolysaccharide (endotoxin, LPS) is a major recognition marker for the detection of gram‐negative bacteria by the host and a powerful initiator of the inflammatory response to infection. Using S‐ and R‐form LPS from wild‐type and R‐mutants of Salmonella and E. coli, we show that R‐form LPS readily activates mouse cells expressing the signaling receptor Toll‐like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation protein 2 (TLR4/MD‐2), while the S‐form requires further the help of the LPS‐binding proteins CD14 and LBP, which limits its activating capacity. Therefore, the R‐form LPS under physiological conditions recruits a larger spectrum of cells in endotoxic reactions than S‐form LPS. We also show that soluble CD14 at high concentrations enables CD14‐negative cells to respond to S‐form LPS. The presented in vitro data are corroborated by an in vivo study measuring TNF‐α levels in response to injection of R‐ and S‐form LPS in mice. Since the R‐form LPS constitutes ubiquitously part of the total LPS present in all wild‐type bacteria its contribution to the innate immune response and pathophysiology of infection is much higher than anticipated during the last half century.

Interleukin-1 (IL-1)-induced TAK1-dependent Versus MEKK3-dependent NFκB Activation Pathways Bifurcate at IL-1 Receptor-associated Kinase Modification

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor-associated kinase (IRAK) is phosphorylated after it is recruited to the receptor, subsequently ubiquitinated, and eventually degraded upon IL-1 stimulation. Although a point mutation changing lysine 134 to arginine (K134R) in IRAK abolished IL-1-induced IRAK ubiquitination and degradation, mutations of serines and threonines adjacent to lysine 134 to alanines ((S/T)A (131–144)) reduced IL-1-induced IRAK phosphorylation and abolished IRAK ubiquitination. Through the study of these IRAK modification mutants, we uncovered two parallel IL-1-mediated signaling pathways for NFκB activation, TAK1-dependent and MEKK3-dependent, respectively. These two pathways bifurcate at the level of IRAK modification. The TAK1-dependent pathway leads to IKKα/β phosphorylation and IKKβ activation, resulting in classical NFκB activation through IκBα phosphorylation and degradation. The TAK1-independent MEKK3-dependent pathway involves IKKγ phosphorylation and IKKα activation, resulting in NFκB activation through IκBα phosphorylation and subsequent dissociation from NFκB but without IκBα degradation. These results provide significant insight to our further understanding of NFκB activation pathways.

The structural basis for the sensing and binding of cyclic di-GMP by STING

STING (stimulator of interferon genes) is an essential signaling adaptor that mediates cytokine production in response to microbial invasion by directly sensing bacterial secondary messengers such as the cyclic dinucleotide bis-(3′-5′)-cyclic dimeric GMP (c-di-GMP). STINGs structure and its binding mechanism to cyclic dinucleotides were unknown. We report here the crystal structures of the STING cytoplasmic domain and its complex with c-di-GMP, thus providing the structural basis for understanding STING function.

Protein kinase R (PKR) interacts with and activates mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 6 (MKK6) in response to double-stranded RNA stimulation.

The double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-activated protein kinase R (PKR) has been invoked in different signaling pathways. In cells pre-exposed to the PKR inhibitor 2-aminopurine or in PKR-null cells, the activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) following dsRNA stimulation is attenuated. We found that the p38 MAPK activator MKK6, but not its close relatives MKK3 or MKK4, exhibited an increased affinity for PKR following the exposure of cells to poly(rI:rC), a dsRNA analog. In vitro kinase assays revealed that MKK6 was efficiently phosphorylated by PKR, and this could be inhibited by 2-aminopurine. Expression of kinase-inactive PKR (K296R) in cells inhibited the poly(IC)-induced phosphorylation of MKK3/6 detected by phosphospecific antiserum but did not affect the poly(IC)-induced gel migration retardation of MKK3. This suggests that poly(IC)-mediated in vivo activation of MKK6, but not MKK3, is through PKR. Consistent with this observation, PKR was capable of activating MKK6 as assessed in a coupled kinase assay containing the components of the p38 MAPK pathway. Our results indicate that the interaction of MKK6 and PKR provides a mechanism for regulating p38 MAPK activation in response to dsRNA stimulation.