Zhenhua Liao

Study on improved tribological properties by alloying copper to CP-Ti and Ti-6Al-4V alloy

Copper alloying to titanium and its alloys is believed to show an antibacterial performance. However, the tribological properties of Cu alloyed titanium alloys were seldom studied. Ti-5Cu and Ti-6Al-4V-5Cu alloys were fabricated in the present study in order to further study the friction and wear properties of titanium alloys with Cu additive. The microstructure, composition and hardness were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM) and hardness tester. The tribological behaviors were tested with ZrO2 counterface in 25% bovine serum using a ball-on-disc tribo-tester. The results revealed that precipitations of Ti2Cu intermetallic compounds appeared in both Ti-5Cu and Ti-6Al-4V-5Cu alloys. The tribological results showed an improvement in friction and wear resistance for both Ti-5Cu and Ti-6Al-4V-5Cu alloys due to the precipitation of Ti2Cu. The results also indicated that both CP-Ti and Ti-5Cu behaved better wear resistance than Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-6Al-4V-5Cu due to different wear mechanisms when articulated with hard zirconia. Both CP-Ti and Ti-5Cu revealed dominant adhesive wear with secondary abrasive wear mechanism while both Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-6Al-4V-5Cu showed severe abrasive wear and cracks with secondary adhesive wear mechanism due to different surface hardness integrated by their microstructures and material types.

Tribological behaviour of titanium alloy modified by carbon–DLC composite film

Diamond-like carbon (DLC) films were deposited on both the untreated and the prior carbon ion implanted Ti6Al4V alloys by plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD). The tribological behaviours were evaluated by conducting reciprocating wear tests against ZrO2 using a ball on disc tribotester. The effect of ion implantation dose and zone on mechanical and tribological behaviour of DLC films was studied by means of nanohardness and nanoscratch tester, SEM and three-dimensional surface profiler. The duplex treatment dramatically increased the surface hardness and bonding strength of film/substrate. Both carbon ion implantation and PECVD improved the wear resistance of titanium alloy, whereas the combined process of carbon ion implantation with the dose of 1016 ions cm−2 and PECVD offered the best wear resistance by a reduction of 94·3% in wear volume in comparison to untreated alloy. The cracks and deformations that induced local flaking failure under high contact stress played an important role in the wear and failure mechanisms.

Study on the Wettability and Tribological Behavior of Different Polymers as Bearing Materials for Cervical Prosthesis

Tribological behaviors of four polymers (conventional and cross-linked UHMWPE, conventional and glass fiber-reinforced PEEK) articulated with Ti6Al4V ball were studied under both dry sliding and 25% bovine serum lubrication. The hardness, static contact angle, surface damage topography, and wear parameter of wear scar were tested. Both cross-linked process of UHMWPE and glass fiber-reinforced treatment of PEEK improved wettability while they did not increase hardness. PEEK revealed higher surface hardness and better wettability than UHMWPE. The dominant wear mechanisms for UHMWPE were plastic deformation and fatigue wear while the failure mechanisms were severe adhesive and abrasive wear for PEEK. Cross-linked process of UHMWPE could form multi-molecular arrangement and reduce stratification, also decreasing friction coefficient and wear rate in both dry sliding and lubrication conditions. However, glass fiber-reinforced treatment of PEEK only decreased its friction coefficient and wear rate in dry condition, which was closely related to the function and wear mechanism of glass fiber. Cross-linked UHMWPE revealed the lowest friction coefficient and wear rate under lubrication condition, which was attributed to the cross-linked treatment and the formation of both protein adsorption film and lubrication film. Hence, cross-linked UHMWPE may be an alternative polymer for use as artificial cervical disc bearing material when it articulated with Ti6Al4V.

Study on torsional fretting wear behavior of a ball-on-socket contact configuration simulating an artificial cervical disk.

A ball-on-socket contact configuration was designed to simulate an artificial cervical disk in structure. UHMWPE (ultra high molecular weight polyethylene) hot pressed by powders and Ti6Al4V alloy were selected as the material combination of ball and socket. The socket surface was coated by a ~500 nm C-DLC (carbon ion implantation-diamond like carbon) mixed layer to improve its surface nano hardness and wear resistance. The torsional fretting wear behavior of the ball-on-socket model was tested at different angular displacements under 25% bovine serum lubrication with an axial force of 100 N to obtain more realistic results with that in vivo. The fretting running regimes and wear damage characteristics as well as wear mechanisms for both ball and socket were studied based on 2D (two dimension) optical microscope, SEM (scanning electron microscope) and 3D (three dimension) profiles. With the increase of angular displacement amplitude from 1° to 7°, three types of T-θ (Torsional torque-angular displacement amplitude) curves (i.e., linear, elliptical and parallelogram loops) corresponding to running regimes of PSR (partial slip regime), MR (mixed regime) and SR (slip regime) were observed and analyzed. Both the central region and the edge zone of the ball and socket were damaged. The worn surfaces were characterized by wear scratches and wear debris. In addition, more severe wear damage and more wear debris appeared on the central region of the socket at higher angular displacement amplitude. The dominant damage mechanism was a mix of surface scratch, adhesive wear and abrasive wear for the UHMWPE ball while that for the coated socket was abrasive wear by PE particles and some polishing and rolling process on the raised overgrown DLC grains. The frictional kinetic behavior, wear type, damage region and damage mechanism for the ball-on-socket model revealed significant differences with those of a ball-on-flat contact while showing better consistency with that of in vitro cervical prosthesis simulations according to the literature.

Biomechanical Analysis of Two-level Cervical Disc Replacement With a Stand-alone U-shaped Disc Implant

Study Design. Biomechanical study using a three-dimensional nonlinear finite element model. Objective. To analyze biomechanical changes with three prostheses based on two-level arthroplasty and to verify the biomechanical efficiency of dynamic cervical implants (DCIs) with a stand-alone U-shaped structure. Summary of Background Data. Few studies have compared biomechanical behavior of various prostheses as they relate with clinical results after two-level total disc replacement. Methods. Three arthroplasty devices Mobi-C, porous coated motion (PCM), and DCI were inserted at the C4–C6 disc space and analyzed. Displacement loading was applied to the center of the endplate at the C3 level to simulate flexion and extension motions. Results. The motion distributions in extension with DCI and in flexion with DCI and Mobi-C were relatively close to that in the intact model. Mobi-C and PCM obviously increased the combined extension range of motion at the index levels, but both resulted in about 45% decrease in extension moment. DCI showed a trend in strain energy similar to that of healthy discs. PCM exhibited a facet joint stress distribution almost similar to that of the intact model. DCI did not generate significant overloading at cartilage between the index levels, whereas the maximum facet joint stress increased with Mobi-C was about 39%. The maximum stress on a ultrahigh molecular-weight-polyethylene core was above the yield stress (42.43 MPa for Mobi-C and 30.94 MPa for PCM). Conclusion. Each prosthesis shows its biomechanical advantages and disadvantages. However, DCI has the capacity to preserve motion and store energy under external loading, similar to the behavior of normal discs. Compared with Mobi-C, both DCI and PCM showed a lower stress at cartilage between index levels, which may avoid facet joint degeneration to some extent. Such a well-controlled arthroplasty device with a stand-alone structure may be a potential candidate and needs to be investigated in future studies. Level of Evidence: 5

Fretting Wear Study of PEEK-Based Composites for Bio-implant Application

The failure caused by fretting wear is a key issue in orthopedic applications as well as other engineering applications. In this study, fretting wear tests were conducted on poly (ether ether ketone) (PEEK), glass fiber reinforced PEEK (GFRPEEK) and carbon fiber reinforced PEEK (CFRPEEK), respectively. Surface characterizations of tested specimens were performed using XRD, microhardness tester, 3D white-light interfering profilometry, SEM and optical microscopy to analyze their wear features. The obtained results showed that the fibers increased the microhardness values and reduced the friction coefficients and wear rates of PEEK-based composites. The fretting regimes of PEEK, GFRPEEK and CFRPEEK were gross slip. The fretting wear mechanisms of those PEEK composites were dominated by abrasive wear, adhesive wear and delamination. CFRPEEK has demonstrated superior fretting wear characteristics, and hence, is a potential bio-implant material for applications such as artificial joints.

Comparison of wear behaviors for an artificial cervical disc under flexion/extension and axial rotation motions

The wear behaviors of a ball-on-socket (UHMWPE-on-Ti6Al4V) artificial cervical disc were studied with 1.5 MC (million cycles) wear simulation under single flexion/extension and axial rotation motion and their composite motion. The wear rates, wear traces, and contact stress were analyzed and contrasted based on mass loss, optical microscopy and SEM as well as 3D profilometer, and ANSYS software, respectively. A much higher wear rate and more severe wear scars appeared under multi-directional motion. Flexion/extension motion of 7.5° lead to more severe wear than that under axial rotation motion of 4°. The above results were closely related to the contact compression stress and shear stress. The wear surface in FE motion showed typical linear wear scratches while revealing obvious arc-shaped wear tracks in AR motion. However, the central zone of both ball and socket components revealed more severe wear tracks than that in the edge zone under these two different motions. The dominant wear mechanism was plowing/scratching and abrasive wear as well as a little oxidation wear for the titanium socket while it was scratching damage with adhesive wear and fatigue wear due to plastic deformation under cyclic load and motion profiles for the UHMWPE ball.

Biomechanics of Hybrid Anterior Cervical Fusion and Artificial Disc Replacement in 3-Level Constructs: An In Vitro Investigation

Background The ideal surgical approach for cervical disk disease remains controversial, especially for multilevel cervical disease. The purpose of this study was to investigate the biomechanics of the cervical spine after 3-level hybrid surgery compared with 3-level anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF). Material/Methods Eighteen human cadaveric spines (C2-T1) were evaluated under displacement-input protocol. After intact testing, a simulated hybrid construct or fusion construct was created between C3 to C6 and tested in the following 3 conditions: 3-level disc plate disc (3DPD), 3-level plate disc plate (3PDP), and 3-level plate (3P). Results Compared to intact, almost 65~80% of motion was successfully restricted at C3-C6 fusion levels (p<0.05). 3DPD construct resulted in slight increase at the 3 instrumented levels (p>0.05). 3PDP construct resulted in significant decrease of ROM at C3-C6 levels less than 3P (p<0.05). Both 3DPD and 3PDP caused significant reduction of ROM at the arthrodesis level and produced motion increase at the arthroplasty level. For adjacent levels, 3P resulted in markedly increased contribution of both upper and lower adjacent levels (p<0.05). Significant motion increases lower than 3P were only noted at partly adjacent levels in some conditions for 3DPD and 3PDP (p<0.05). Conclusions ACDF eliminated motion within the construct and greatly increased adjacent motion. Artificial cervical disc replacement normalized motion of its segment and adjacent segments. While hybrid conditions failed to restore normal motion within the construct, they significantly normalized motion in adjacent segments compared with the 3-level ACDF condition. The artificial disc in 3-level constructs has biomechanical advantages compared to fusion in normalizing motion.

Biomechanics of Artificial Disc Replacements Adjacent to a 2-Level Fusion in 4-Level Hybrid Constructs: An In Vitro Investigation.

Background The ideal procedure for multilevel cervical degenerative disc diseases remains controversial. Recent studies on hybrid surgery combining anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) and artificial cervical disc replacement (ACDR) for 2-level and 3-level constructs have been reported in the literature. The purpose of this study was to estimate the biomechanics of 3 kinds of 4-level hybrid constructs, which are more likely to be used clinically compared to 4-level arthrodesis. Material/Methods Eighteen human cadaveric spines (C2–T1) were evaluated in different testing conditions: intact, with 3 kinds of 4-level hybrid constructs (hybrid C3–4 ACDR+C4–6 ACDF+C6–7ACDR; hybrid C3–5ACDF+C5–6ACDR+C6–7ACDR; hybrid C3–4ACDR+C4–5ACDR+C5–7ACDF); and 4-level fusion. Results Four-level fusion resulted in significant decrease in the C3–C7 ROM compared with the intact spine. The 3 different 4-level hybrid treatment groups caused only slight change at the instrumented levels compared to intact except for flexion. At the adjacent levels, 4-level fusion resulted in significant increase of contribution of both upper and lower adjacent levels. However, for the 3 hybrid constructs, significant changes of motion increase far lower than 4P at adjacent levels were only noted in partial loading conditions. No destabilizing effect or hypermobility were observed in any 4-level hybrid construct. Conclusions Four-level fusion significantly eliminated motion within the construct and increased motion at the adjacent segments. For all 3 different 4-level hybrid constructs, ACDR normalized motion of the index segment and adjacent segments with no significant hypermobility. Compared with the 4-level ACDF condition, the artificial discs in 4-level hybrid constructs had biomechanical advantages compared to fusion in normalizing adjacent level motion.

Hybrid Constructs for Performing Three-level Hybrid Surgery: A Finite Element Study

OBJECTIVE To systematically investigate the effect of 3-level hybrid constructs on the cervical spine biomechanics based on a validated model of the C3-C7 segments. METHODS Three hybrid constructs with 2 U-shaped dynamic cervical implants and 1 cage were simulated. The 3 constructs were 1) Cage-U-U (cage implanted at the C3-C4 level and U-shaped dynamic cervical implants implanted at the C4-C5 and C5-C6 levels), 2) U-Cage-U, and 3) U-U-Cage. Biomechanical parameters including moments, cervical motions, and stresses in the facet and implants were analyzed in flexion and extension. RESULTS The flexion and extension motions at artificial cervical disc replacement levels increased for all hybrid constructs when compared with those of intact model. However, the maximum increase was 52% with U-U-Cage model. At the unoperated adjacent level, the maximum motion increase in extension was 23% with the U-U-Cage model. Also, the U-U-Cage and U-Cage-U model generated more than 40% increase in terms of flexion motion at the adjacent level. The facet stress at the adjacent level increased by 28%, 20%, and 39% with the Cage-U-U, U-Cage-U, and U-U-Cage models, respectively. The moments required to reach the same motion as the intact model were significantly increased. CONCLUSIONS The study showed that the U-U-Cage model lead to more compensation in terms of motion and facet stress. Furthermore, the present results imply that when conducting the hybrid surgery, the segmental motions should be taken into account. Performing anterior cervical discectomy and fusion at the level whose motion is relatively small may decrease the compensation required at the adjacent level.