Albert A. Harrison

From Antarctica to Outeer Space: Life in Isolation and Confinement.

The Antarctic has been seen increasingly in recent years as a possible analog environment for long term space travel. The present volume is based on papers presented at a conference in 1987 in Sunnyvale principally on the human experience in Antarctica, under joint sponsorship by the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and National Science Foundation (NSF) and with particular emphasis on relevance to space. These studies are at the forefront of our understanding of Man’s adaptation and are international, but with a strong feeling of national accomplishment in the field. This book relies heavily on US experience: 36 of the 45 participants were from USA, 9 were from other countries (France, UK, Zealand, Australia and Canada). Most remarkable was the absence of any direct Soviet input. The volume is divided in four parts. Firstly, an introduction to the human side of isolated and confined environments with data derived from Antarctica, Outer Space, submarines and even remote US national parks. The second part of the book discusses theoretical issues underlying research on isolated and confined humans, a third part focuses on basic psychological and social responses to isolation and confinement. Finally, there is a part on interventions and outcomes which discusses selection, training and environmental designs. There is also a final conclusion presenting recommendations, heavily influenced by the US background of the three editors. Although many Antarctic operators have used selection programs, and some also follow up programs, there is apparently not the corresponding amount of systematic data on psychological selection available. The pioneer in this research, E.K.Eric Gunderson developed selection batteries very early, but these were either not used, or not researched adequately. It seems as if considerable portion of largescale potential data from the mid-sixties to the mid eighties have simply been lost or not exploited. However studies of smaller groups at French, New Zealand and Australian stations, demonstrate that there are normally few dramatic changes either during the stay or following the stay. Another pioneer, A.J.W. Taylor, who contributes to this volume, has summarized his results in afamouspaperentit1ed“Antarctica Psychometrica Unspectacular”. Boredom and monotony may be one of the highest sources of risk for long stays. Some degree of sensory deprivation has been described, (at least as stimulus reduction) and there have been claims of altered consciousness in the Antarctic and in space. These factors do not seem to be related to the harsh environments, but more to the organization and work load that a group has under the particular circumstances. To be taken seriously Psychologists must demonstrate their ability to contribute to the exploration of Antarctica and space. Suedfeld gives recommendations for this. Soviet medical experts have claimed that the main medical problem in space is psychology, but NASA seems to believe that concerns about astronaut adaptation were unfounded, since no space mission has been jeopardized by psychological factors. Suedfeld suggests that researchers should think in terms of experiences within environments rather than of environmental characteristics, they should study differences and similarities between experiences, and knowledge should be based on similarities in the experience rather than on the environment. An obvious future improvement would be general agreement on standard batteries both for selection and for follow-up of the experience from space, Antarctic and sub-sea environments. Some initiatives have now begun to address this. Many of the authors’ comment the positive effects of the Antarctic experience, whilst the lack of problems, and a feeling of accomplishment and enrichment after such an expedition seems to be reasonably well established. There is some concern over the “re-entry” into civilization and on the desirability of consultation and support systems, particularly after a long stay. Readers from other nations, like the present reviewer, cannot help noticing the heavy US influence. The constant mention of “national” data, committees, boards, research committees, governmental proposals etc. all refer only to US interests. This ought to have been avoided in avolume which obviously addresses an international audience, and an area of international collaboration. The publisher has a European base, with offices spread all over the globe! There is, for instance, a speculation on what would happen if a German killed a Greek on a US Antarctic base. There is an interesting discussion of the US legal issues, but no mention of the possibility that German and Greek authorities also might have a certain interest in such a case, or references to international agreements and experience from international marine law. Provincialism is provincialism even if the province is very large! The challenge and experiences gained at the limits of our existence as a species affect us all, and interest us all. The empirical material from visits to space will be limited. There are interesting experiences from sub-sea environments not mentioned in thisvolume. There isan abundanceof experience from the Antarctic, and, also to some extent, from the Arctic.

Drive and predisposition as factors in the attitudinal effects of mere exposure

Abstract From the response competition interpretation of the attitude-enhancing effects of exposure it was hypothesized that (1) arousal during exposure would decrease affective ratings whereas (2) arousal during rating would decrease the ratings of low frequency stimuli but enhance the ratings of high frequency stimuli. Experiment I provided weak support for the first hypothesis while Experiment II provided clear support for the second hypothesis. Experiment III, exploring an unexpected finding from Experiment I, suggested that exposure will lead to more favorable ratings only if a stimulus is initially neutral or positive.

Groups in Exotic Environments

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on groups of people in polar camps, submarines, space capsules, and other exotic environments that are defined by the characteristics of isolation, confinement, and risk. At the same time that exotic environments are becoming more salient, behavioral research on groups in exotic environments has almost ground to a halt. The chapter considers certain barriers to further advancement in which people involved in such groups may view psychological research as useless or counterproductive. The exotic environments of yesteryear have changed substantially, and many new exotic environments are available for study. Social and organizational psychology has changed immensely, and many new developments can be taken into account. The chapter illustrates those two theoretical models, the ecological and the behavioral, that have evolved around isolation and confinement research. As group level phenomena are supplemented by organizational level phenomena, open systems theory may be put to good use.

Confirmation of ETI: initial organizational response

Abstract Perhaps the most crucial responses to the confirmation of extraterrestrial intelligence will come from organizations, rather than from individual people. Among the key organizations that will help shape humanitys response are political institutions such as the US Congress, administrative bodies such as the US Department of State, security agencies, the military, professional societies, and the media. Although popular culture and individual beliefs will affect organizational performance, organizational reactions will depend also on organizational cultures and traditions, administrative structures, communication patterns, decision-making processes, and the actions of other organizations. Prompt and effective responses may be blocked by sociopolitical constraints, jurisdictional disputes, cumbersome structures and procedures, stresses that frequently slow and distort information processing, and potentially counterproductive efforts to maintain positive organizational images. Efforts undertaken by governmental agencies will be hampered by public perceptions of low credibility. Foresight and advance preparation are among the steps that organizations may take to prepare for contact, but conservative values, skepticism towards SETI, and competing organizational priorities make serious preparation unlikely.

Birth Dates and Death Dates: A Closer Look.

The present research examines possible temporal links between dates of birth and dates of death. A week by week analysis of the deaths of 4,320 eminent North American men who died within four weeks of their birthdays suggests that the period ranging from two weeks before the birthday to two weeks after the birthday is a period of high risk, with the exception that there are relatively few deaths during the week immediately following the birthday itself. A day by day analysis of the deaths of 1008 eminent individuals who died within one week spans which centered on their birthdays showed that the most deaths occurred two days before the birthday and that the fewest deaths occurred the day after the birthday. For the individuals studied, birthdays may be stressful events whose termination brings about a temporary upswing in mood and a brief reprieve from death. Findings are discussed in terms of the opponent process theory of motivation.

Astrobiology and Society: Building an Interdisciplinary Research Community

This paper reports recent efforts to gather experts from the humanities and social sciences along with astrobiologists to consider the cultural, societal, and psychological implications of astrobiology research and exploration. We began by convening a workshop to draft a research roadmap on astrobiologys societal implications and later formed a Focus Group on Astrobiology and Society under the auspices of the NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI). Just as the Astrobiology Science Roadmap and various astrobiology science focus groups have helped researchers orient and understand their work across disciplinary contexts, our intent was to apply the same approach to examine areas beyond the physical and life sciences and expand interdisciplinary interaction and scholarly understanding. These efforts continue as an experiment in progress, with an open invitation to interested researchers-astrobiologists as well as scholars in the humanities and social sciences-to become involved in research, analysis, and proactive discussions concerning the potential impacts of astrobiology on society as well as the possible impacts of society on progress in astrobiology.

Variations in Death Rates in the Proximity of Christmas: An Opponent Process Interpretation.

Previous attempts to show that death is sometimes postponed until after an important social occasion have focused on the relationship between birthdates and deathdates. The present research uses Christmas as the focal social event. Study I, which involved the number of obituaries published in a major metropolitan newspaper during the eight weeks centering on Christmas, showed a significant death dip immediately prior to Christmas and a significant death surge immediately thereafter. Study II, which was based on the actual death dates of eminent Americans, yielded the same general pattern of results and also revealed that the post-Christmas upswing was significant only in the case of people who had surpassed the samples median age. Study II, which involved a day-by-day analysis, showed that the post-holiday increase was very abrupt. All of these findings are fully consistent with Solomon and Corbits opponent process theory of motivation.

The relative stability of belligerent and peaceful societies: implications for SETI

Abstract Although initially we will know virtually nothing about any society that our microwave search detects, in all likelihood their society will be far older than ours. It will have evolved mechanisms to ensure longevity. A pessimistic hypothesis would lead us to expect a powerful, aggressive and self-serving society that has vanquished all challengers. If this hypothesis were true, a response by us to their signal could be dangerous. An optimistic hypothesis, that it is the peaceful societies that survive, would lead us to expect a benign or even friendly civilization. If this second hypothesis were true, our response would gratify their scientific curiosity and perhaps lead to a useful exchange of information. Convergent evidence from the quantitative analyses of long-term historical trends and computer modeling support the optimistic hypothesis. Although not conclusive, this analysis suggests that revealing our presence in the Universe is a low risk activity.

Human factors in spacecraft design.

This paper describes some of the salient implications of evolving mission parameters for spacecraft design. Among the requirements for future spacecraft are new, higher standards of living, increased support of human productivity, and greater accommodation of physical and cultural variability. Design issues include volumetric allowances, architecture and layouts, closed life support systems, health maintenance systems, recreational facilities, automation, privacy, and decor. An understanding of behavioral responses to design elements is a precondition for critical design decisions. Human factors research results must be taken into account early in the course of the design process.

On the conjunction of national holidays and reported birthdates: one more patch to reflected glory?

The present study examines the relationship between the dates of national holidays and reported dates of birth. Study 1 showed that of all the people who had served in the U.S. Congress from its inception through the early 1970s, a disproportionate number of those who were born during the weeks centering on July 4, December 25, and January 1 were born on the holidays themselves. Study 2 involved three large samples from Whos Who publications. Holiday-birthday links appeared, but with the exception of Christmas, did not persist for people born after 1915. A disproportionate number of foreign-born as well as native-born pre-twentieth-century Americans reported being born on July 4. In comparison to low-ranking Christian clergy, high-ranking clergy were more likely to have been born on December 25. Results are interpreted in terms of image enhancement through unit associations between oneself and positively evaluated stimuli.