Alejandro E. Brice

Code Mixing in a Young Bilingual Child

As the culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) population of the United States continues to increase dramatically, speech-language pathologists (SLPs) face the challenge how best to serve children whose primary language is not English. One way of overcoming the bilingual communication barrier is for bilingual children to alternate their two languages (i.e., code switching and code mixing). Frequently, SLPs have limited understanding of the functions and patterns of language alternation in bilingual children. Language alternation is a normal, common, and important aspect of bilingualism. This investigation aims to answer several basic questions regarding normal code mixing behaviors in a young bilingual child, namely, (a) What syntactic elements are mixed most frequently in conversational discourse in a young bilingual child? and (b) What information can be applied to a diagnostic or therapeutic situation? Spontaneous speech samples of a bilingual Spanish-English speaking child were collected during a period of 17 months. The child was between the ages of 6 and 8 years. Descriptive analysis of the data revealed percentages and rank ordering of syntactic elements switched in the longitudinal language samples obtained. Specific recommendations for using code mixing in therapy for bilingual and monolingual speech-language pathologists are given.

Code Switching and Code Mixing in the ESL Classroom: A Study of Pragmatic and Syntactic Features

As the student population of countries such as Australia and the United States continues to become increasingly diverse, speech-language pathologists (SLPs) serving school-age populations repeatedly face the challenge of how to best assess those whose primary language is not English. Communication can be a barrier for many non-English or limited English-speaking students. One way of overcoming this barrier is for bilingual students to employ code switching. Unfortunately, not all SLPs are aware of what role code switching plays in second language acquisition. Code switching (intersentential alternation) or code mixing (intrasentential alternation) can be evidenced along the entire continuum of proficiency. A better understanding of the inter-relationship of dual languages use is warranted. A field-based study in an English as a second language (ESL) classroom was performed. Instances of code switching and code mixing were analysed according to classroom language functions (i.e., pragmatic) and for syntactic features. A discussion of the different types of language functions specific to code switching and code mixing are presented. the syntactic features of the code-mixed utterances are also presented.

Choice of Languages in Instruction: One Language or Two?.

This article explores the ins and outs ofbilingual instruction and helps teachersknow (a) whether to use the native lan-guage versus English in instruction and(b) the role that code switching (i.e.,language alternation or languageexchange between two languages) playsin instruction. In addition, the articlesuggests strategies for using the nativelanguage and using code switching. We have followed a model,Jacobson’s New Concurrent Approach(Faltis, 1989), for bilingual special edu-cators. This model relies on the follow-ing assumptions: (a) the teacher andstudents have some abilities in both lan-guages, (b) use of code switching is tooccur only between sentences and notwithin a sentence, and (c) it can be inte-grated into any program of bilingualeducation (maintenance or transitional)or general education.

Spanish-English Articulation and Phonology of 4- and 5-Year-Old Preschool Children: An Initial Investigation

In this study, it was postulated that typically developing (i.e., normally developing without incidence of a speech or language delay or disorder) Spanish/Englishspeaking children ages 4 to 5 years old would show different articulation productions and phonological patterns in both languages. Sixteen participants from Florida were tested with Spanish and English articulation and phonology tests. For articulation, two manner or articulation comparisons were found to be significant (i.e., plosives and liquids/glides). In addition, two phonological patterns (i.e., stopping and velar fronting) were significantly different. Normative articulation and phonological Spanish and English data were obtained and should be useful for today’s public school speech-language pathologists. Further research should include normative data for bilingual children with articulation and/or phonological disorders to develop more appropriate treatments. In addition, it is recommended that other languages be investigated as the nation is also experiencing growth in languages beyond Spanish.

Understanding the Experiences of Bilingual, Latino/a Adolescents: "Voices from Gifted and General Education"

Eight gifted and eight general‐education students engaged in discussions regarding their observations of, experiences in, and recommendations for education. Six categories emerged through qualitative analysis of their conversations. These categories include: problem solving, task commitment, self‐perceptions, education, communication, and discrimination. Content within each category provides a glimpse into the students’ perceptions of their schooling experiences. The roles of ethnic identity development, identification with majority culture, adolescence, and gifted‐ness are examined and recommendations for future research are provided.

Investigation of Phonemic Awareness and Phonic Skills in Spanish-English Bilingual and English-Speaking Kindergarten Students:

The ability to read on grade level is a fundamental skill required for children to achieve academic success. Students who are English language learners (ELLs) and/or those who have learning disabilities often find it extremely difficult to achieve at the reading expectation level. This study examines English phonemic awareness and phonic skills in four groups of kindergarten students with and without disabilities: (a) 20 high-reading-level English monolinguals, (b) 20 low-reading-level English monolinguals, (c) 20 high-reading-level English-Spanish bilinguals, and (d) 20 low-reading-level English-Spanish bilinguals. Findings indicated differences for monolingual versus bilingual speakers in their ability to identify voiced versus voiceless contrasts. It appears from these findings that an achievement gap in reading levels between monolingual and bilingual students exists even at the kindergarten grade level.

Language in the English as a Second Language and General Education Classrooms: A Tutorial

As the culturally and linguistically diverse population of the United States continues to increase dramatically, speech— language pathologists (SLPs) and special education teachers in particular face the challenge of how best to assess and teach those students whose primary language is not English. The changing U.S. demographics are driving a need for a more comprehensive understanding of students learning English as a second language and the effect upon their education of learning English as a second language. A substantial number of English language learner (ELL) students, with and without disabilities, may not possess the requisite classroom discourse or pragmatic skills, may face difficulties, and may be incapable of fully benefiting in their learning. This tutorial will discuss factors related to describing classroom discourse in the context of five ethnographic studies, with particular attention paid to pragmatic language skills for ELL students with and without disabilities. This article will also discuss strategies for what these students need to know regarding pragmatic language skills and which strategies school professionals need to implement for bilingual ELL students (i.e., regarding planning and communication in delivering instruction). This knowledge should assist school professionals in making more appropriate decisions in assessment and instruction for these students.

Case Studies in Inclusion What Works, What Doesn't

Over the last decade, the nature of special education services has become more inclusive. Four tenets are at the core of this inclusion movement: (a) the inclusive classroom setting is an integrated setting in which all children learn together, (b) the inclusive classroom setting does not unduly label or identify students as special needs learners, (c) the inclusive classroom maximizes educational benefit, and (d) the inclusive classroom minimizes the need for a separate curriculum. This article presents two real-life case studies that illustrate how inclusion can be successfully or unsuccessfully implemented. Case Study 1 demonstrates the appropriate use of inclusion and teaching strategies to maximize learning. Case Study 2 is an example of how inclusion was purported to be implemented in an elementary school setting when, in fact, it represented a most restrictive educational environment. Informal and formal teaching strategies are presented, along with specific recommendations on making classrooms inclusive.

English, Spanish, and Code-Switching Use in the ESL Classroom: An Ethnographic Study

Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) in the schools, and English as a second language (ESL) teachers currently face the challenge of how to best provide instruction for students who are learning English. The purpose of this study was to describe the results of a qualitative study performed in an ESL classroom to determine teacher and student functional uses of language (i.e., pragmatics), particularly language involving code-switching and code-mixing use. The data for this study were gathered via classroom observations and interviews with the ESL teacher and ESL teacher aide in an elementary school with a 30% Hispanic/Latino population. Overall, the ESL classroom appeared to be teacher directed as evidenced by a high degree of questioning, commands, feedback, and informatives. Of all the instances of code-switching and code-mixing, none were judged to be grammatically inappropriate for either English, Spanish or the combined switched/mixed language form. The authors have developed a clinical intervention approach focused on Real, Experiences, Acknowledgment and Language (REAL). Taken from the data, REAL can be used by both SLPs and teachers to make language more meaningful.

What language discourse tells us about bilingual adolescents : a study of students in gifted programs and students in general education programs

The Latino/a population of the United States continues to increase dramatically; consequently, educators face the challenge of how best to provide educational services for those whose primary language is Spanish. The purpose of this study was to examine student discourse between bilingual students in gifted programs and bilingual students in the general education programs in an urban middle school. This study suggests a minor language advantage for the bilingual students in the gifted program. The overall conclusion seems to indicate that bilingualism, language abilities, and giftedness involve many variables and that the relationships are not necessarily direct.