Alicia M. Ortega

Toward a self-deploying shape memory polymer neuronal electrode

The widespread application of neuronal probes for chronic recording of brain activity and functional stimulation has been slow to develop partially due to long-term biocompatibility problems with existing metallic and ceramic probes and the tissue damage caused during probe insertion. Stiff probes are easily inserted into soft brain tissue but cause astrocytic scars that become insulating sheaths between electrodes and neurons. In this communication, we explore the feasibility of a new approach to the composition and implantation of chronic electrode arrays. We demonstrate that softer polymer-based probes can be inserted into the olfactory bulb of a mouse and that slow insertion of the probes reduces astrocytic scarring. We further present the development of a micromachined shape memory polymer probe, which provides a vehicle to self-deploy an electrode at suitably slow rates and which can provide sufficient force to penetrate the brain. The deployment rate and composition of shape memory polymer probes can be tailored by polymer chemistry and actuator design. We conclude that it is feasible to fabricate shape memory polymer-based electrodes that would slowly self-implant compliant conductors into the brain, and both decrease initial trauma resulting from implantation and enhance long-term biocompatibility for long-term neuronal measurement and stimulation.

In Vivo Penetration Mechanics and Mechanical Properties of Mouse Brain Tissue at Micrometer Scales

Substantial advancement in the understanding of the neuronal basis of behavior and the treatment of neurological disorders has been achieved via the implantation of various devices into the brain. To design and optimize the next generation of neuronal implants while striving to minimize tissue damage, it is necessary to understand the mechanics of probe insertion at relevant length scales. Unfortunately, a broad-based understanding of brain-implant interactions at the necessary micrometer scales is largely missing. This paper presents a generalizable description of the micrometer-scale penetration mechanics and material properties of mouse brain tissue in vivo. Cylindrical stainless steel probes were inserted into the cerebral cortex and olfactory bulb of mice. The effects of probe size, probe geometry, insertion rate, insertion location, animal age, and the presence of the dura and pia on the resulting forces were measured continuously throughout probe insertion and removal. Material properties (modulus, cutting force, and frictional force) were extracted using mechanical analysis. The use of rigid, incompressible, cylindrical probes allows for a general understanding of how probe design and insertion methods influence the penetration mechanics of brain tissue in vivo that can be applied to the quantitative design of most future implantable devices.

Effect of crosslinking and long-term storage on the shape-memory behavior of (meth)acrylate-based shape-memory polymers

This work highlights the free- and fixed-strain shape-memory response of amorphous (meth)acrylate-based shape-memory polymers as the level of crosslinking is varied from uncrosslinked to highly crosslinked (corresponding to a decrease in failure strains and overall increase in rubbery moduli and failure stresses). The effect of long-term storage on the free-strain shape-memory response is also considered. Tensile deformation levels during the shape-memory cycle are 90% of failure strain values to determine the full extent of free- and fixed-strain recovery behavior. All materials demonstrate full shape-recovery under free-strain conditions (material is unconstrained during recovery); however, total recoverable strains increase with decreasing crosslinking level, with uncrosslinked and lightly crosslinked materials recovering strains on the order of 3–10× that of moderately and highly crosslinked materials. In contrast, under fixed-strain conditions (material is fully constrained in the fixed shape during recovery), the magnitude of recovery stress generation increases with increasing crosslinking level, with highly crosslinked materials demonstrating recovery stress levels 4–20× that of lightly crosslinked and uncrosslinked materials. The ability to produce recovery stresses on par with those reached during deformation also increases with crosslinking level. Stored-shape fixation and free-strain recovery levels remain stable after long-term storage in the deformed temporary state at 20 °C; however, recovery onset temperatures increase (by up to 9 °C) with storage time spanning ∼1 year, as do rates of free-strain recovery (by up to 9×), due to physical aging. Results indicate that aging could potentially be used as a method for shape-memory response optimization.

Structural evolution during the cycling of NiTi shape memory alloys

The structural evolution in NiTi shape memory alloys subjected to pseudoelastic cycling is examined in the present study. Single crystals with [100] and [111] orientations were subjected to repeated compressive cycles and then studied by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). TEM observations were made at cycle numbers 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 since the majority of degradation occurs during these initial cycle numbers. Under compression, single crystals with [111] orientations degraded much faster than crystals with [100] orientations. Under tension, single crystals with [100] orientations fractured in the elastic region, and crystals with [111] orientations showed considerable degradation as a function of cycling. Intermittent TEM observations on single crystals oriented along the [111] direction showed an increase in dislocation density on multiple active slip systems as a function of cycling. Single crystals oriented along the [100] orientation show a less dramatic increase in dislocation density as a function of cycling. TEM observations have revealed that dislocation structures formed near martensite plates have a similar periodicity as internal twin modes within the martensite. This observation implies that, although the interface between the martensite and parent phase is a low-energy boundary, the local disruptions due to internal twins create preferential nucleation sites for the formation of lattice defects.

Moderate chronic kidney disease impairs bone quality in C57Bl/6J mice.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) increases bone fracture risk. While the causes of bone fragility in CKD are not clear, the disrupted mineral homeostasis inherent to CKD may cause material quality changes to bone tissue. In this study, 11-week-old male C57Bl/6J mice underwent either 5/6th nephrectomy (5/6 Nx) or sham surgeries. Mice were fed a normal chow diet and euthanized 11weeks post-surgery. Moderate CKD with high bone turnover was established in the 5/6 Nx group as determined through serum chemistry and bone gene expression assays. We compared nanoindentation modulus and mineral volume fraction (assessed through quantitative backscattered scanning electron microscopy) at matched sites in arrays placed on the cortical bone of the tibia mid-diaphysis. Trabecular and cortical bone microarchitecture and whole bone strength were also evaluated. We found that moderate CKD minimally affected bone microarchitecture and did not influence whole bone strength. Meanwhile, bone material quality decreased with CKD; a pattern of altered tissue maturation was observed with 5/6 Nx whereby the newest 60μm of bone tissue adjacent to the periosteal surface had lower indentation modulus and mineral volume fraction than more interior, older bone. The variance of modulus and mineral volume fraction was also altered following 5/6 Nx, implying that tissue-scale heterogeneity may be negatively affected by CKD. The observed lower bone material quality may play a role in the decreased fracture resistance that is clinically associated with human CKD.

Cast NiTi Shape-Memory Alloys

The purpose of this study is to investigate the structure and properties of polycrystalline NiTi in its cast form. Although it is commonly stated in the literature that cast NiTi has poor shape-memory behavior, this study demonstrates that with appropriate nano/micro structural design, cast NiTi possesses excellent shape-memory properties. Cast NiTi shape-memory alloys may give rise to a new palette of low-cost, complex-geometry components. Results from two different nominal compositions of cast NiTi are presented: 50.1 at.%Ni and 50.9 at.%Ni. The cast NiTi showed a spatial variance in grain size and a random grain orientation distribution throughout the cast material. However, small variances in the thermo-mechanical response of the cast material resulted. Transformation temperatures were slightly influenced by the radial location from which the material was extracted from the casting, showing a change in Differential Scanning Calorimetry peak diffuseness as well as a change in transformation sequence for the 50.9 at.%Ni material. Mildly aged 50.9 at.%Ni material was capable of full shape-memory strain recovery after being strained to 5% under compression, while the 50.1 at.%Ni demonstrated residual plastic strains of around 1.5%. The isotropic and symmetric response under tensile and compressive loading is a result of the measured random grain orientation distribution. The favorable recovery properties in the cast material are primarily attributed to the presence of nanometer scale precipitates, which inhibit dislocation motion and favor the martensitic transformation.