Anastasios Kaburakis

International prospective student-athletes and NCAA Division I amateurism.

This paper summarises a research stream dealing with the US system of amateur intercollegiate sport and its relation to International Prospective Student-Athletes (IPSAs). Crucial differences exist between the US ‘clear demarcation’ of commercial pro sport and amateurism as applied by National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I (NCAA DI) on one hand, and the International club-based federalised structure, with more connections between professional and amateur clubs on the other. Thus, IPSAs, NCAA staff, and member institutions experience problems. As litigation has not resolved these challenges, regulatory evolution and policy recommendations are in order to achieve greater balance among NCAA DI membership.

Sports Economics on Trial

On June 30, 2012, a North American Association of Sports Economists-sponsored symposium session entitled “Sports Economics on Trial” was held in conjunction with the 2012 Western Economics Association International conference in San Francisco, California. The foci of the symposium were two-fold. First, speakers discussed relevant evidentiary rules and recent legal cases that turned on sports economics issues and expert testimony related thereto. Second, the panel sought to collectively provide a primer that academics and professionals working in the sports economics realm could subsequently turn to as a guide when involved in litigation pertaining to their research. This article represents an outgrowth of the symposium, highlighting four recent legal cases under the sports economics umbrella and addressing discrete issues relevant to sports economics’ role in litigation.

Virtue(al) games—real drugs

Abstract The growth of esports as a recognized, organized, competitive activity in North America and Europe has evolved steadily from one of the most prominent sport industries in several Asian countries. Esports, which is still pursuing a widely accepted governance structure, has struggled to control the factors that typically act as a breeding ground for sport corruption. Within the esports industry, there is alleged widespread use of both prescription and off-label use of stimulants, such as modafinil, methylphenidate, and dextroamphetamine. Anti-doping policy implementation in this environment may result in either the abuse of the Therapeutic Use Exemptions (TUE) system or excluding too many competitors who have a legitimate need for these medications. In this paper, we contextualize esports and substance use within this emerging industry. Subsequently, we outline the specific challenges faced by esports organizations in crafting policies to address PEDs—one of the industry’s most pressing issues. Further, we provide the application of MacIntyre’s virtue ethics conceptual framework to highlight ethical tensions within the industry. This lens elucidates the direction forward for esports should be one determined to foster virtue in the practice.

Esports: Children, stimulants and video-gaming-induced inactivity: Esports inactivity

Imagine a child who plays video games for 12–14 h a day and sleeps just 4 h a night. This is the life of some adolescents and aspiring professionals in the field of esports. Esports are competitive video game contests and they present an emerging public health risk on three axes: the age of participants, the use of stimulants and inactivity. The medical community has previously expressed concerns related to excessive video game consumption observing, for example ‘space invaders wrist’ among other potential side effects associated with video games. But, esports are not local competitions held at shopping malls, as video game tournaments once were. They are now commercial pursuits with sponsorships for top performers, sold-out stadiums for live-viewing, venture capital-like investments and a tethered wagering market expected to reach US

U.S. Sport Management Programs in Business Schools: Trends and Key Issues

23.5 billion by the year 2020. Indeed, the world-wide esports audience (participants and viewers) is anticipated to be upwards of 435 million people by 2019. A 2017 article from ESPN reported that amongst five popular esports titles the average age of professionals was between 21.2 and 25.5. Beyond roots in South Korea, esports teams are now emerging on a growing number of collegiate campuses, with some schools handing out scholarships to prized recruits in the same way that they have courted football or basketball phenoms in the past. Although often discussed in the singular, esports more accurately describe a variety of different competitive video game titles in a manner like the Olympics is a conglomeration of many different sports. Professionalisation of esports has in many ways legitimised excessive consumption of an activity that was long thought to be best consumed in moderation. The first medical concern that has emerged in the world of both professional and amateur video-gaming is physical and mental exhaustion. The burn-out associated with competitive video-gaming is associated not only with the playing of games but also with the streaming of games, as some Twitch streamers have been reported to occasionally stream for periods of 24 h or longer to satisfy the appetites of the site’s subscribers who follow and, in some instances, pay for content from streamers. The demands of having a successful streaming career, as well as the demands of being a successful esports professional, lead to esports being dominated by athletes that are typically younger than major professional sports stars and more akin to precocious gymnasts who have historically dominated at the Olympics, only to retire shortly after reaching the age of majority. It is not uncommon for esports professionals to retire from competition at an age as young as 19, occasionally choosing to pursue a career streaming or coaching. Fueling the marathon gaming sessions of some pros and amateurs are both prescription and over-the-counter stimulants. The use of stimulants such as dextroamphetamine in esports has emerged as a concern, with one professional stating, ‘we are all on Adderall’. To combat this reality or perception, some leagues have begun to implement drug testing protocols for competitors in advance of competitions. In addition to the use of prescription stimulants, the use of non-prescription stimulants has created a grey market cottage industry of supplements marketed to professional and want-to-be professional gamers. The variety of drugs accessible without prescriptions that are being marketed to gamers largely promise to enhance focus; some are comprised of caffeine and B-12, whereas others are composites of herbal ingredients. In some ways, esports are like many traditional sports – there are teams, someone wins, and there is uncertainty of outcome. But in other ways, esports differ markedly from traditional sports in that the athletes manipulate avatars on computer screens against opponents instead of physically confronting opponents on a field, court or rink. Both the similarities and differences raise potential health concerns. Concerns regarding the use of stimulant medications in professional esports is a major concern from a contest integrity perspective, but the recreational use by esports enthusiasts, players and streamers, of both prescription and overthe-counter stimulants to sustain marathon gaming and streaming sessions or improve focus are actions that parents and medical professionals should investigate and pre-empt. In addition, in an era of concussions, heightened awareness and concern over safety regarding many traditional sports, including football, hockey, soccer and cheerleading, there is a danger in going too far in the other direction and encouraging children to avoid physical activities that may result in an injury. Out of an abundance of caution, parents may be content with children engaging in video-gaming as a pastime; however, they may unknowingly be opening the door to gaming abuse and overuse-related risk factors, several of which have been associated with major conditions. Brain imaging research findings show that stimulating the brain via screens and gaming is as dopaminergic (dopamine activating) as sex, gambling and addictive substances, by flooding the brain’s pleasure centre with multiple stimuli. A growing number of clinical research studies correlate screens and gaming abuse and overuse with disorders like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, addiction, anxiety, depression, increased aggression and psychosis (also referred to as game transfer phenomena or ‘Tetris effect’). Further, recent magnetic Correspondence: Dr John T Holden, Department of Sport Management, Florida State University, 1014 Tully, 139 Chieftan Way, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA. Fax: +1 850 644 0975; email: jtholden@fsu.edu

Cases C-403/08 and C-429/08 FA Premier League Ltd and Others v QC Leisure and Others; and Karen Murphy v Media Protection Services Ltd, 4 Oct 2011

The growth of sport management programs housed in (or with formal curriculum-based ties to) a school of business indicates more academic institutions are reconsidering sport management as a business-oriented field. Thus, research is necessary regarding benchmarking information on the state of these academic programs. The purpose of this study is to explore trends on administration, housing, accreditation, faculty performance indicators and research requirements, as well as salaries for faculty and alumni of such programs. Data was submitted by 74 department chairs and program directors employed in U.S. business schools featuring sport management programs. Results indicate that the majority of sport business programs are part of an interdisciplinary department, COSMA accreditation is largely viewed as redundant, and depending on business schools’ accreditation, variability exists concerning faculty performance measures and research impact, as well as faculty and alumni salaries. These findings suggest considerable progress of sport management programs within business schools.

European Union Law, Gambling, and Sport Betting. European Court of Justice Jurisprudence, Member States Case Law, and Policy

The FA Premier League (“FAPL”) runs the Premier League, the leading professional football league competition for football clubs in England. FAPL’s activities include commercially exploiting the ass ...

Is it Still 'In the Game,' or Has Amateurism Left the Building? NCAA Student-Athletes’ Perceptions of Commercial Activity and Sports Video Games

Carmen Media and Engelmann are the latest in a series of many cases handled by the European Court of Justice (ECJ) on matters dealing with gambling, sport betting practises, and member states’ traditionally-established monopolies. EU Law application on these cases has been problematic and fairly inconsistent among national courts and the ECJ itself. In an era where online gaming, in particular, is rapidly growing into a larger share of the gambling industry, and considering the ease of access and multitude of products, services, and transactions involved, the ECJ, European Commission, and national governments are toiling over the most prudent, balanced, and practical approach and policy directions for the future of the industry in Europe.