Andrea Carnaghi

The Cognitive Representation of Self-Stereotyping

The present work looks at the self-stereotyping process and reveals its underlying cognitive structure. When this process occurs, it is necessarily the result of an overlap between the representation of the ingroup and that of the self. Two studies measured this overlap and showed that it was higher on stereotype-relevant than on stereotype-irrelevant traits, it involved both positive and negative stereotypical traits, and it implied a deduction-to-the-self process of ingroup stereotypical dimensions. Moreover, the status of one’s social group was found to be a key variable in this process, showing that self-stereotyping is limited to low-status group members. Indeed, results of Study 2 showed that the overlap between the self and the ingroup for high-status group members was the result of an induction-to-the-ingroup process of personal characteristics. Implications for research on people’s self-construal are discussed.

Nomina Sunt Omina: On the Inductive Potential of Nouns and Adjectives in Person Perception

Six studies (N = 491) investigated the inductive potential of nouns versus adjectives in person perception. In the first 5 studies, targets were either described by an adjective (e.g., Mark is homosexual) or by the corresponding noun (e.g., Mark is a homosexual) or by both (Study 3). The authors predicted and found that nouns, more so than adjectives, (a) facilitate descriptor-congruent inferences but inhibit incongruent inferences (Studies 1-3), (b) inhibit alternative classifications (Study 4), and (c) imply essentialism of congruent but not of incongruent preferences (Study 5). This was supported for different group memberships and inclinations (athletics, arts, religion, sexual preference, drinking behavior, etc.), languages (Italian and German), and response formats, suggesting that despite the surface similarity of nouns and adjectives, nouns have a more powerful impact on person perception. Study 6 investigated the inverse relationship, showing that more essentialist beliefs (in terms of a genetic predisposition rather than training) lead speakers to use more nouns and fewer adjectives. Possible extensions of G. R. Semin and K. Fiedlers (1988) linguistic category model and potential applications for language use in intergroup contexts are discussed.

Enhancing Masculinity by Slandering Homosexuals The Role of Homophobic Epithets in Heterosexual Gender Identity

The current studies investigate the effects of homophobic labels on the self-perception of heterosexual males, hypothesizing that when exposed to homophobic epithets, they are motivated to underline their masculinity and claim a distinctly heterosexual identity by taking distance from homosexuals and, to a lesser degree, from women. Heterosexual male participants were subliminally (Study 1) and supraliminally (Study 2) primed either by a homophobic epithet or by a category label, and completed the Traditional Beliefs About Gender and Gender Identity scale. Participants stressed their heterosexual identity, but not their gender distinctiveness, when exposed to homophobic epithets, compared to category labels. Study 2 demonstrated that the relation between the homophobic label and the participants’ heterosexual identity was mediated by how negatively they reacted to the antigay label. Heterosexual identity was enhanced in reaction to homophobic labels but not to an equally derogatory label referring to regional identity. Results are discussed within an intergroup framework.

In-Group and Out-Group Perspectives in the Use of Derogatory Group Labels Gay Versus Fag

This research investigates whether derogatory group labels (fag, fairy) elicit different automatic reactions than do category labels (gay, homosexual). In a study (N = 55), involving both heterosexual and homosexual participants, the authors investigated the effects of subliminally represented derogatory versus category labels on the recognition of positive and negative traits that were stereotypical, counterstereotypical, or irrelevant to the category gay, is reported. In line with hypotheses, both derogatory and category labels activated the stereotype. Yet, in heterosexual participants, derogatory labels activated associations that were much less favorable than those activated by category labels. In contrast, homosexual participants reacted in much the same way to category and derogatory labels. The results suggest that heterosexuals are particularly likely to be negatively affected by derogatory group labels. The importance of these findings for the enforcement of political correctness norms is discussed.

Comparing Group Dehumanization and Intra-Sexual Competition Among Normally Ovulating Women and Hormonal Contraceptive Users

Two studies address the role of hormonal shift across menstrual cycle in female dehumanization of other women. In Study 1, normally ovulating women (NOW) and women who use hormonal contraceptives (HCW) are compared in terms of how much they dehumanize other women and two other control targets (men and elderly people). In NOW, the level of dehumanization of other women, but not of men and elderly people, increases as the conception risk is enhanced. HCW do not show this pattern of results. In Study 2, we investigate the level of dehumanization of other women and of intra-sexual competition. Findings concerning dehumanization replicate those of Study 1. Intra-sexual competition increases with the rise of conception risk only in NOW. In addition, dehumanization is significantly associated with intra-sexual competition in NOW but not in HCW. Together, these studies demonstrate that dehumanization of women is elicited by menstrual cycle–related processes and associated with women’s mate-attraction goals.

The best way to tell you to use a condom: The interplay between message format and individuals' level of need for cognition

Abstract The present study addressed how individuals in high versus low need for cognition react to a persuasive message (concerning safer sexual conduct) presented either in a written format or in a comic-strip format. A control group that did not receive any persuasive message was also included. With reference to the Theory of Reasoned Action, we analyzed participants’ instrumental attitude and instrumental norm toward the use of condoms. Results indicated that, compared to participants in the control group, providing participants with the persuasive message bolstered their instrumental attitude and norm. More importantly, participants high in need for cognition displayed higher levels of both instrumental attitude and norm when the message was in a written, as compared to a comic-strip, format. In contrast, participants low in need for cognition reported a stronger level of both instrumental attitude and norm in reaction to a comic-strip than a written message. Results are discussed with respect to their theoretical and practical implications.

Comparing Self-stereotyping with In-group-stereotyping and Out-group-stereotyping in Unequal-status Groups: The Case of Gender

We compared self-stereotyping, in-group-stereotyping, and out-group-stereotyping, among members of high- and low-status groups. Because gender inequality is still present in society, we operationalized status in terms of gender. We considered the male (female) gender category to possess relatively high (low) status. As predicted on the basis of an extension of Mullens model (1991), Italian men showed significant levels of out-group-stereotyping, but no significant levels of self-stereotyping or in-group-stereotyping. In contrast, Italian women showed significant levels of self-stereotyping, in-group-stereotyping, and out-group-stereotyping. Looked at differently, men showed significantly stronger out-group-stereotyping than women, and women showed significantly stronger self-stereotyping than men. Women also showed marginally stronger in-group-stereotyping than men. The stronger self-stereotyping among women was mediated by greater female in-group identification.

Social groups have a representation of their own: Clues from neuropsychology

The most relevant evidence for the organization of the conceptual knowledge in the brain was first provided by the patterns of deficits in brain-damaged individuals affecting one or another semantic category. Patients with various etiologies showed a disproportionate impairment in producing and understanding names of either living (fruits, vegetables, animals) or nonliving things (tools, vehicles, clothes). These double dissociations between spared and impaired recognition of living and nonliving things led to suggest that these categories are discretely represented in the brain. Recently social groups were found to be represented independently of traditional living and nonliving categories. Here we tested 21 patients with different types of primary dementia with three word sorting tasks tapping their conceptual knowledge about living and nonliving entities and social groups. Patients double dissociated in categorizing words belonging to the three categories. These findings clarify that knowledge about social groups is distinct from other semantic categories.

Labelling and discrimination: Do homophobic epithets undermine fair distribution of resources?

This research investigated the behavioural consequences of homophobic epithets. After exposure to either a category or a homophobic label, heterosexual participants allocated fictitious resources to two different prevention programmes: one mainly relevant to heterosexuals (sterility prevention), the other to homosexuals (AIDS-HIV prevention). Responses on allocation matrices served to identify strategies that favoured the ingroup over the outgroup. Results indicated stronger ingroup-favouritism in the homophobic than in the category label condition. This study shows that discriminatory group labels have tangible effects on peoples monetary behaviours in intergroup contexts, increasing their tendency to favour the ingroup when distributing resources.

What Did You Just Call Me? European and American Ratings of the Valence of Ethnophaulisms

Previous work has examined the relative valence (positivity or negativity) of ethnophaulisms (ethnic slurs) targeting European immigrants to the United States. However, this relied on contemporary judgments made by American researchers. The present study examined valence judgments made by citizens from the countries examined in previous work. Citizens of 17 European nations who were fluent in English rated ethnophaulisms targeting their own group as well as ethnophaulisms targeting immigrants from England. American students rated ethnophaulisms for all 17 European nations, providing a comparison from members of the host society. Ratings made by the European judges were (a) consistent with those made by the American students and (b) internally consistent for raters’ own country and for the common target group of the English. Following discussion of relevant methodological issues, the authors examine the theoretical significance of their results.