Andrew Grenville

Measurements of the dynamic contact angle for conditions relevant to immersion lithography

The semiconductor industry has used optical lithography to create impressively small features. However, the resolution of optical lithography is approaching limits based on light wavelength and numerical aperture. Immersion lithography is a means to extend the resolution by inserting a liquid with a high index of refraction between the lens and wafer. This enables the use of higher numerical aperture optics. Several engineering obstacles must be overcome before immersion lithography can be used on an industry-wide scale. One such challenge is the deposition of the immersion liquid onto the wafer during the scanning process; any residual liquid left on the wafer is a potential defect mechanism. The residual liquid deposition is controlled by the details of the fluid management system, and is strongly dependent on the three-phase contact line. Therefore, this work concentrates on understanding the behavior of this contact line, specifically by measuring the dynamic contact angle and the critical velocity for liquid deposition. A contact angle measurement technique is developed and verified; the technique is subsequently applied to measure the dynamic advancing and receding contact angle for a series of resist-covered surfaces under conditions that are relevant to immersion lithography.

Contamination transport in immersion lithography

In immersion lithography at 193 nm, water is inserted between a resist-coated wafer and the final lens element to improve resolution and depth of focus. Experiments have shown that some chemicals in the resist, particularly the photoacid generators, are soluble and therefore will leach out of the resist layer when exposed to water. Diffusion of this contamination across the lens-wafer gap may, over time, build up on the lens and therefore degrade the performance of the tool. We present models that describe the transport of contaminants in the under-lens region of an immersion tool. The mass flux of contaminants onto the lens is quantified for a reasonable range of parameters under various 2-D steady-state and transient flow conditions. A critical mass flux is estimated to provide a context for interpreting these results; the critical mass flux is defined as the level of mass flux that might, over a period of one year, result in a layer of contamination that is sufficiently thick so as to affect the optical transmission of the system.

Experimental and Numerical Studies of the Response of Photomask Hard Pellicles to Acoustic Excitation

To meet the stringent image placement error budgets for the insertion of 157-nm lithography in the sub-65 nm regime, photomask-related distortions must be minimized, corrected, or possibly eliminated. Sources of distortions include the pellicle system, which has been previously identified as a potential cause of image placement error. To characterize the many aspects of static pellicle-induced distortions, experiments have been conducted, and comprehensive finite element simulations have been performed for hard pellicle systems. The results of these benchmarking studies showed the capabilities of modeling and simulation to accurately predict static pellicle-induced distortions. In addition, the dynamic response of hard pellicles during exposure scanning was determined, taking into account both inertia effects and fluid / structure interaction. This paper focuses on the vibratory response of modified fused silica (hard) pellicles due to acoustic / dynamic pressure loadings during exposure scanning, studied both experimentally and numerically. A modal analysis was performed, the structural damping of the pellicle system was assessed, and a harmonic study was conducted to characterize the effects of acoustic excitation. The results obtained facilitate the timely establishment of viable hard pellicle designs and related standards for 157-nm lithography.

Ambient Effects on the Laser Durability of 157 nm Optical Coatings

We present results of the durability of antireflectance (AR) coatings under laser irradiation with emphasis on the interplay between coating materials and ambient. We find that introducing ppm-levels of water has a dramatic impact on the performance of certain coatings. In particular, no significant degradation of a coating was observed for up to 1MJ/cm2 dose in the presence of ~20 ppm H2O, whereas linear transmission drop of several percent was observed when irradiating a coating of similar design in <0.1 ppm H2O but under 1.5 ppm O2. Cycling water concentration on and off leads a corresponding cycling of transmission of the coatings. Adding water vapor to the ambient has a much greater benefit to coating durability than adding corresponding amounts of gas phase oxygen. In a series of experiments involving the same coating stack with different degrees of porosity of the outer layer, moisture was found to have the greatest impact on the most porous coating.

Accelerated damage to blank and antireflectance-coated CaF2 surfaces under 157-nm laser irradiation

Successful insertion of 157-nm lithography into production requires that materials comprising the optical train meet the lifetime requirements of the industry. At present, no degradation of bulk fluoride materials has been observed for at least up to 109 pulses. However, last year we reported on the surface damage to fluoride materials that appeared after 3-4x109 pulses at moderate fluences of 3-4 mJ/cm2/pulse2. This damage manifested itself as a precipitous transmission drop of up to 50% at 157 nm and was accompanied by the formation of a porous rough surface layer about 0.20 μm thick. Understanding this surface damage is important for the durability of laser windows and beam delivery optics, and it may also help elucidate fundamental 157-nm photophysics of fluoride surfaces. To understand the underlying phenomena, we have designed and constructed a new accelerated damage test chamber. The chamber utilizes 157-nm light from a lithography-grade laser operating at 1000 Hz. Inside the chamber, light is focused onto the sample to a submillimeter spot size. The chamber allows us to test in-situ transmission of multiple spots on a given sample over a range of fluences up to 140 mJ/cm2/pulse without breaking purge. We have used this chamber to understand the scaling of the damage mechanism for both uncoated and antireflectance (AR) -coated CaF2 samples as a function of laser repetition rate and fluence. Substrate damage appears to be governed by a complex set of mechanisms, both thermal and non-thermal in origin. Preliminary damage studies of AR-coated substrates show that AR-coating related degradation occurs well before the onset of the substrate surface damage.

Marathon evaluation of optical materials for 157-nm lithography

We present the methodology and recent results on the long-term evaluation of optical materials for 157-nm lithographic applications. We review the unique metrology capabilities that have been developed for accurately assessing optical properties of samples both online and offline, utilizing VUV spectrophotometry with in situ lamp-based cleaning. We describe ultraclean marathon testing chambers that have been designed to decouple effects of intrinsic material degradation from extrinsic ambient effects. We review our experience with lithography-grade 157-nm lasers and detector durability. We review the current status of bulk materials for lenses, such as CaF 2 and BaF 2 , and durability results of antireflectance coatings. Finally, we discuss the current state of laser durability of organic pellicles.

157-nm attenuated phase-shift mask materials with irradiation stability

The next suite of optical lithography tools beyond 193nm will use 157nm irradiation to illuminate the mask pattern onto a semiconductor wafer. As the illumination wavelength decreases, the number of materials that can be used to create attenuated phase shift masks decreases dramatically. Especially the number of materials that maintain constant transmission after prolonged irradiation. The Ta-based and Cr-based materials have been recognized as two such sets of materials that remain optically unchanged due to prolonged VUV irradiation. Optical characterization of these materials by spectroscopic ellipsometry has been used to simulate several material systems to achieve proper transmission and phase shift while simultaneously improving the inspection contrast of the patterned mask. Both simulation and experimental results will be presented for Ta-based and/or Cr-based material systems that maintain relatively constant transmission for more than 50 million pulses under 157nm irradiation.