Ann Marie Ryan

Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence.

A meta-analysis of stereotype threat effects was conducted and an overall mean effect size of |.26| was found, but true moderator effects existed. A series of hierarchical moderator analyses evidenced differential effects of race- versus gender-based stereotypes. Women experienced smaller performance decrements than did minorities when tests were difficult: mean ds = |.36| and |.43|, respectively. For women, subtle threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and moderately explicit cues: ds = |.24|, |.18|, and |.17|, respectively; explicit threat-removal strategies were more effective in reducing stereotype threat effects than subtle ones: ds = |.14| and |.33|, respectively. For minorities, moderately explicit stereotype threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and subtle cues: ds = |.64|, |.41|, and |.22|, respectively; explicit removal strategies enhanced stereotype threat effects compared with subtle strategies: ds = |.80| and |.34|, respectively. In addition, stereotype threat affected moderately math-identified women more severely than highly math-identified women: ds = |.52| and |.29|, respectively; low math-identified women suffered the least from stereotype threat: d= |.11|. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Applicants’ Perceptions of Selection Procedures and Decisions: A Critical Review and Agenda for the Future:

This review critically examines the literature from 1985 to 1999 on applicant perceptions of selection procedures. We organize our review around several key questions: What perceptions have been studied? What are determinants of perceptions? What are the consequences or outcomes associated with perceptions applicants hold? What theoretical frameworks are most useful in examining these perceptions? For each of these questions, we provide suggestions for key research directions. We conclude with a discussion of the practical implications of this line of research for those who design and administer selection processes.

Variance in faking across noncognitive measures.

There are discrepant findings in the literature regarding the effects of applicant faking on the validity of noncognitive measures. One explanation for these mixed results may be the failure of some studies to consider individual differences in faking. This study demonstrates that there is considerable variance across individuals in the extent of faking 3 types of noncognitive measures (i.e., personality test, biodata inventory, and integrity test). Participants completed measures honestly and with instructions to fake. Results indicated some measures were more difficult to fake than others. The authors found that integrity, conscientiousness, and neuroticism were related to faking. In addition, individuals faked fairly consistently across the measures. Implications of these results and a model of faking that includes factors that may influence faking behavior are provided.

Frame-of-reference effects on personality scale scores and criterion-related validity.

Increased use of personality inventories in employee selection has led to concerns regarding factors that influence the validity of such measures. A series of studies was conducted to examine the influence of frame of reference on responses to a personality inventory. Study 1 involved both within-subject and between-groups designs to assess the effects of testing situation (general instructions vs. applicant instructions) and item type (work specific vs. noncontextual) on responses to the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1989). Results indicated that a work-related testing context and workrelated items led to more positive responses. A second study found differences in the validity of a measure of conscientiousness, depending on the frame of reference of respondents. Specifically, context-specific items were found to have greater validity. Implications for personnel selection are discussed.

Test-taking dispositions: A missing link?

Test-taking dispositions and motivation have been proposed as moderators of employment test validity. In a simulated, multiorganization employment system, scores on the Test Attitude Survey (TAS) were found to moderate the validities of both an ability and a personality test used to predict a performance criterion. The criterion-related validity of the personality test was found to be higher for a subsample with less positive test-taking motivation than for a subsample with higher test-taking motivation. An opposite effect was found among the subgroups for the ability test. Range restriction and the predictability of individuals with high and low test-taking dispositions were examined as explanations for the findings

“Temporary Worker, Permanent Loser?”A Model of the Stigmatization of Temporary Workers

As organizations seek to increase flexibility and reduce costs, temporary work arrangements have increased. In this article, the authors argue that these workers can be the targets of devalued treatment. They develop a model of the individual and organizational antecedents and consequences of temporary worker stigmatization. Then, they articulate the implications of this model for research on workplace stigma and effective utilization of temporary workers.

Antecedents and potential moderators of the relationship between attitudes and hiring discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation

A sample of 236 undergraduates (most of whom were White women) rated resumes in which gender, masculinity/femininity, and sexual orientation were manipulated while qualifications were kept constant. Overall, participants rated lesbian and gay male applicants less positively than heterosexual male applicants, but more positively than heterosexual women. Religiosity, beliefs in traditional gender roles, beliefs in the controllability of homosexuality, and previous contact with lesbians and gay men were related to attitudes toward lesbians and gay men, which was in turn related to beliefs about employing them. Several factors were hypothesized to moderate the relationship between beliefs about employing lesbians and gay men and discrimination, although the expected relationships were not found. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

An investigation of race and sex similarity effects in interviews: A multilevel approach to relational demography.

This research studied the effects of race and sex similarity on ratings in one-on-one highly structured college recruiting interviews (N = 708 interviewers and 12203 applicants for 7 different job families). A series of hierarchical linear models provided no evidence for similarity effects, although the commonly used D-score and analysis-of-variance-based interaction approaches conducted at the individual level of analysis yielded different results. The disparate results demonstrate the importance of attending to nested data structures and levels of analysis issues more broadly. Practically, the results suggest that organizations using carefully administered highly structured interviews may not need to be concerned about bias due to the mismatch between interviewer and applicant race or sex.

Using personality testing to reduce adverse impact : A cautionary note

Adding a personality test to an ability test for employee selection has been suggested as a means of enhancing validity while reducing adverse impact of the selection system. Adverse impact was examined with different weightings of ability and personality testing at varying selection ratios using data from two large applicant samples. This demonstration indicated that the use of personality testing did not compensate for the adverse impact related to cognitive ability testing and that applicant pool characteristics and the nature of the personality measure may be important considerations. Overall, results suggest caution in presuming a reduction in adverse impact by the addition of personality measures.

Impression Management Use and Effectiveness Across Assessment Methods

Considerable research has focused on candidate impression management (IM) use in unstructured interviews. However, little research has explored candidate IM use in other, frequently used assessment methods. This study examines the extent to which candidates, under consideration for a promotion, use verbal IM tactics in two types of structured individual assessment methods: a situational interview and a role-play. Based on a cybernetic model of IM, we predicted that IM use and effectiveness would vary across the two methods. Thus, this study examines the consistency of IM use across assessment methods; an issue that has not previously been explored. As expected, the situational interview resulted in greater use of candidate IM tactics. Additionally, other-focused tactics were used significantly more frequently than self-focused tactics in both assessment methods. IM use in the situational interview predicted assessor ratings and final promotion scores, while IM use in the role-play did not. Overall, these ...