J. Kevin Ford

Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation.

Although training evaluation is recognized as an important component of the instructional design model, there are no theoretically based models of training evaluation. This article attempts to move toward such a model by developing a classification scheme for evaluating learning outcomes. Learning constructs are derived from a variety of research domains, such as cognitive, social, and instructional psychology and human factors. Drawing from this research, we propose cognitive, skill-based, and affective learning outcomes (relevant to training) and recommend potential evaluation measures. The learning outcomes and associated evaluation measures are organized into a classification scheme. Requirements for providing construct-oriented evidence of validity for the scheme are also discussed

Transfer of Training: A Meta-Analytic Review

Although transfer of learning was among the very first issues addressed by early psychologists, the extant literature remains characterized by inconsistent measurement of transfer and significant variability in findings. This article presents a meta-analysis of 89 empirical studies that explore the impact of predictive factors (e.g., trainee characteristics, work environment, training interventions) on the transfer of training to different tasks and contexts. We also examine moderator effects of the relationships between these predictors and transfer. Results confirmed positive relationships between transfer and predictors such as cognitive ability, conscientiousness, motivation, and a supportive work environment. Several moderators had significant effects on transfer relationships, including the nature of the training objectives. Specifically, most predictor variables examined (e.g., motivation, work environment) had stronger relationships to transfer when the focus of training was on open (e.g., leadership development) as opposed to closed (e.g., computer software) skills. Other moderators related to the measurement of transfer also influenced transfer relationships, including situations in which transfer outcomes were obtained by the same source in the same measurement context— which consistently inflated transfer relationships. Findings are discussed in terms of their relevance for future research and training practice.

Climate perceptions matter: A meta-analytic path analysis relating molar climate, cognitive and affective states, and individual level work outcomes.

Although workplace climate has been extensively studied, the research has not led to firm conclusions as to its relationship with individual level work outcomes. The authors used C. Ostroffs (1993) taxonomy to organize dimensions labeled as workplace climate and then used meta-analytic techniques to test a path analytic model. The model posited that climate affects individual level outcomes through its impact on underlying cognitive and affective states. An extensive literature search yielded 51 empirical studies with 70 samples. The results suggest that the 3 higher order facets of climate (affective, cognitive, and instrumental) affected individual level outcomes of job performance, psychological well-being, and withdrawal through their impact on organizational commitment and job satisfaction.

Process tracing methods: Contributions, problems, and neglected research questions

Process tracing approaches such as verbal protocol analysis and information board methodologies have been developed to study the cognitive processes underlying decision making. This review summarizes the growing body of literature using process tracing approaches to study decision making. Fortyfive studies were identified for this review and study characteristics were coded. The results firmly demonstrate that noncompensatory strategies were the dominant mode used by decision makers. Compensatory strategies were typically used only when the number of alternatives and dimensions were small or after a number of alternatives had been eliminated from consideration. The research also indicates that information processing in decision making is contingent on the demands of the task faced by the decision maker. Based on this review, methodological issues that could contribute to improving the rigor of process tracing research are discussed. The cost/benefit analysis framework of L. R. Beach and T. R. Mitchell (1978, Academy of Management Review, 3,

Extending the social information processing perspective : new links to attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions

Abstract Salancik and Pfeffer (1977, 1978) proposed a model of social information processing that specified complex linkages between information, its social context, perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. Research conducted on the model is reviewed from the perspective of the model linkages. Results indicate that few of the linkages proposed have been empirically tested, with consistent support found only for the effects of social information on satisfaction. Relevant models and concepts from the cognition, social judgment, persuasive communication, and attitude change literatures are used to extend the social information processing perspective to include personal and situational factors related to depth of information processing, attitude strength and stability, and issues of time and attitude change. Revised models of social information processing are developed and directions for future research are presented.

Emergency response training: Strategies for enhancing real-world performance

Emergency response training poses three problems that are not encountered in training for routine operations. The first of these is a need to remember the provisions of emergency plans and procedures over long periods of time until an emergency occurs. The second problem is a need to generalize from the specific conditions under which training occurred to the potentially very different conditions of an actual emergency. The third problem is a need to develop effective mechanisms for teamwork under conditions that limit retention and generalization. This article identifies nine ways that emergency response training programs can be modified to improve the effectiveness of nuclear power plant personnel who must respond to accident conditions.

Study of Race Effects in Objective Indices and Subjective Evaluations of Performance. A Meta-Analysis of Performance Criteria

Although the criterion problem has been acknowledged as critical in personnel research, few attempts have been made to systematically examine the nature and covariates of criterion measures of performance. The present research used meta-analytic techniques to examine the race effect size for objective measures of performance and to compare the relationship between effect sizes for objective indices and subjective ratings. Fifty-three studies were located that included at least one objective index of actual performance, absenteeism or cognitive test performance and one subjective measure of performance for the same group of black and white employees. The corrected average effect sizes across the 53 studies were relatively low but quite similar for the objective and subjective criteria. Moderating effects for the objective criteria were found as race effects were much higher for cognitive than for performance criteria. Subjective ratings had a lower effect size than objective cognitive test scores but were higher than comparable objective performance indices. The implications of the results for personnel research practices were discussed and the need for a better understanding of the constructs underlying criterion measures was emphasized. A Study of Race Effects

Impact of task experience and individual factors on training-emphasis ratings.

This study included 2 sets of analyses examining the impact of task experience and individual factors on task ratings of training emphasis. Aerospace ground equipment mechanics in the U.S. Air Force completed surveys 8 months and 12 months after formal training. Mechanics rated how much formal training they would recommend for a sample of tasks. In the cross-sectional analyses, with tenure constant at 12 months, an individuals breadth of experience (number of tasks performed) and level of self-efficacy were found to have significant effects on training-emphasis ratings. The change analyses examined factors influencing changes in ratings of training emphasis from 8 to 12 months on the job

100 Years of Training and Development Research: What We Know and Where We Should Go

Training and development research has a long tradition within applied psychology dating back to the early 1900s. Over the years, not only has interest in the topic grown but there have been dramatic changes in both the science and practice of training and development. In the current article, we examine the evolution of training and development research using articles published in the Journal of Applied Psychology (JAP) as a primary lens to analyze what we have learned and to identify where future research is needed. We begin by reviewing the timeline of training and development research in JAP from 1918 to the present in order to elucidate the critical trends and advances that define each decade. These trends include the emergence of more theory-driven training research, greater consideration of the role of the trainee and training context, examination of learning that occurs outside the classroom, and understanding training’s impact across different levels of analysis. We then examine in greater detail the evolution of 4 key research themes: training criteria, trainee characteristics, training design and delivery, and the training context. In each area, we describe how the focus of research has shifted over time and highlight important developments. We conclude by offering several ideas for future training and development research.

The expanding role of workplace training: Themes and trends influencing training research and practice

Contents: E.A. Fleishman, J.N. Cleveland, Series Foreword. L.L. Koppes, Preface. Part I: The Beginning. L.L. Koppes, W. Pickren, Industrial and Organizational Psychology: An Evolving Science and Practice. A.J. Vinchur, L.L. Koppes, Early Contributors to the Science and Practice of Industrial Psychology. Part II: Historical Overviews. M.J. Zickar, R.E. Gibby, Four Persistent Themes Throughout the History of I-O Psychology in the United States. P. Warr, Some Historical Developments in I-O Psychology Outside the United States. Part III: Educational, Organizational, and Military Influences. R.L. Lowman, J. Kantor, R. Perloff, A History of I-O Psychology Educational Programs in the United States. H.H. Meyer, Influence of Formal and Informal Organizations on the Development of I-O Psychology. E. Salas, R.E. DeRouin, P.A. Gade, The Militarys Contribution to Our Science and Practice: People, Places, and Findings. Part IV: Early Topics. A.J. Vinchur, A History of Psychology Applied to Employee Selection. M.A. Wilson, A History of Job Analysis. S.C. Lane, A Historical View of Human Factors in the United States. D.W. Schumann, E. Davidson, Early Influences of Applied Psychologists on Consumer Response: 1895-1925. K. Kraiger, J.K. Ford, The Expanding Role of Workplace Training: Themes and Trends Influencing Training Research and Practice. J.L. Farr, P.E. Levy, Performance Appraisal. Part V: Later Topics. S. Highhouse, Applications of Organizational Psychology: Learning Through Failure or Failure to Learn? G.P. Latham, M-H. Budworth, The Study of Work Motivation in the 20th Century. D.V. Day, S.J. Zaccaro, Leadership: A Critical Historical Analysis of the Influence of Leader Traits.E.Salas, H.A.Priest, K.C.Stagl,D.E.Sims, C.S.Burke, Work Teams in Organizations: A Historical Reflection and Lessons Learned Part VI:Reflections and Future. J.P Campbell Profiting from History. Part VII:Appendix Appendix One: Some Historical Resources for Psychology and I-O Psychology Appendix Two: Timeline of Events and Developments in Industrial and Organizational Psychology in the United States. Appendix Three: Additional Information (Presidents of the International Association of Applied Psychology (IAAP)Editors of the Journal of Applied Psychology (1917-2008), Heads of Personnel Research at the U.S Office of Personnel Managment (OPM) and its predecessor, The U.S. Civil Service Commision (USCSC) Editor