Anna Papazoglou

Tumor Cell–Derived and Macrophage-Derived Cathepsin B Promotes Progression and Lung Metastasis of Mammary Cancer

Proteolysis in close vicinity of tumor cells is a hallmark of cancer invasion and metastasis. We show here that mouse mammary tumor virus-polyoma middle T antigen (PyMT) transgenic mice deficient for the cysteine protease cathepsin B (CTSB) exhibited a significantly delayed onset and reduced growth rate of mammary cancers compared with wild-type PyMT mice. Lung metastasis volumes were significantly reduced in PyMT;ctsb(+/-), an effect that was not further enhanced in PyMT;ctsb(-/-) mice. Furthermore, lung colonization studies of PyMT cells with different CTSB genotypes injected into congenic wild-type mice and in vitro Matrigel invasion assays confirmed a specific role for tumor-derived CTSB in invasion and metastasis. Interestingly, cell surface labeling of cysteine cathepsins by the active site probe DCG-04 detected up-regulation of cathepsin X on PyMT;ctsb(-/-) cells. Treatment of cells with a neutralizing anti-cathepsin X antibody significantly reduced Matrigel invasion of PyMT;ctsb(-/-) cells but did not affect invasion of PyMT;ctsb(+/+) or PyMT;ctsb(+/-) cells, indicating a compensatory function of cathepsin X in CTSB-deficient tumor cells. Finally, an adoptive transfer model, in which ctsb(+/+), ctsb(+/-), and ctsb(-/-) recipient mice were challenged with PyMT;ctsb(+/+) cells, was used to address the role of stroma-derived CTSB in lung metastasis formation. Notably, ctsb(-/-) mice showed reduced number and volume of lung colonies, and infiltrating macrophages showed a strongly up-regulated expression of CTSB within metastatic cell populations. These results indicate that both cancer cell-derived and stroma cell-derived (i.e., macrophages) CTSB plays an important role in tumor progression and metastasis.

Microtransplantation of dopaminergic cell suspensions: further characterization and optimization of grafting parameters.

Intracerebral transplantation of dopaminergic (DA) cells is currently further explored as a potential restorative therapy for Parkinsons disease (PD). However, before they can be considered for a more widespread clinical use a number of critical issues have to be resolved, including an optimized transplantation protocol. This study has been performed in a rat 6-hydroxydopamine model of PD and is based on the microtransplantation approach. The results demonstrate a reduced survival (threefold) for a single cell suspension of E14 rat ventral mesencephalon compared to a fragment suspension when a metal cannula is used for implantation. However, fragment suspensions result in a more variable graft survival and ectopically placed cells along the implantation tract. When a glass capillary is used for implantation, the survival of the single cell suspension (so-called “micrograft”) improved by fourfold (vs. single cells/metal cannula) and is superior to the combination of the metal cannula and fragment suspension (+40%). The micrografts show a reduced variability in DA neuron survival as well as fewer ectopically placed cells. Moreover, the implantation time can significantly be reduced from 19 to 7 min in micrografted animals without a compromise in DA graft survival and functional behavioral outcome. Using the microtransplantation approach graft size can be tailored effectively by varying the density of the final cell suspension at least between 11,000 and 320,000 cells/μl, resulting in comparable survival of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive neurons in the range of 2–4%. With this approach no more than 100 surviving TH-positive neurons are necessary to produce functional effects in the amphetamine-induced rotation test. Interestingly, we found that DA micrografts into lesion striatum present 20% higher survival rates of TH neurons in comparison to the intact striatum. In summary, these results provide further evidence for the usefulness of the microtransplantation approach and allow for a more precise and tailored adaptation of the implantation parameters for further studies on DA, and possibly also other neural-, glial-, and stem cell-derived grafts.

Differential effects on forelimb grasping behavior induced by fetal dopaminergic grafts in hemiparkinsonian rats

Skilled forelimb movements depend on an intact dopaminergic (DA) neurotransmission and are substantially impaired in the unilateral rat model of Parkinsons disease. It has remained unclear, however, to what extent reaching and grasping movements can be influenced by intrastriatal transplantation of fetal DA neurons. Here an extensive behavioral assessment of skilled forelimb movement patterns in hemiparkinsonian and DA-grafted rats was carried out. Good DA graft survival was accompanied by a compensation of drug-induced rotational asymmetries. Interestingly, skilled forelimb use was significantly improved in transplanted animals as compared to lesion-only animals in the staircase test. Qualitative analysis of single forelimb reaching movement components revealed dissociable patterns of graft effects: while some movement components in grafted animals improved, others remained unchanged or even deteriorated. These findings provide novel insights into the complex interactions of graft-derived restoration of DA neurotransmission and skilled forelimb behavior.

Walking pattern analysis after unilateral 6-OHDA lesion and transplantation of foetal dopaminergic progenitor cells in rats

Functional sensorimotor recovery after transplantation of mesencephalic dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons has been well documented in the rat 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) model of Parkinsons disease. However, the functional restoration of more specific gait-related patterns such as skilled walking, balance, and individual limb movements have been insufficiently studied. The purpose of this study was to investigate the behavioural effects of intrastriatal DA grafts on different aspects of normal and skilled walking in rats following unilateral 6-OHDA lesions of the medial forebrain bundle. Rats were subjected to drug-induced rotation, detailed footprint analysis, and assessment of skilled walking in the ladder rung walking test prior and after the transplantation of E14 ventral mesencephalon-derived progenitor cells. Good DAergic graft survival, as revealed by immunohistochemistry, was accompanied by a compensation of drug-induced rotational asymmetries. Interestingly, the analysis of walking patterns displayed a heterogeneous graft-induced response in skilled and non-skilled limb use. Grafted animals made fewer errors with their contralateral limbs in skilled walking than the sham-transplanted rats, and they improved their ipsi- and contralateral limb rotation. However, the parameter distance between feet showed a delayed recovery, and the stride length was not affected by the DA grafts at all. These findings indicate that ectopic intrastriatal transplantation of E14 ventral mesencephalon-derived cells promotes recovery of gait balance and stability, but does not ameliorate the shuffling gait pattern associated with 6-OHDA lesions. A full restoration of locomotor gait pattern might require a more complete and organotypic reconstruction of the mesotelencephalic DAergic pathway.

Survival and functional restoration of human fetal ventral mesencephalon following transplantation in a rat model of Parkinson's disease.

Cell replacement therapy by intracerebral transplantation of fetal dopaminergic neurons has become a promising therapeutic option for patients suffering from Parkinsons disease during the last decades. However, limited availability of human fetal tissue as well as ethical issues, lack of alternative nonfetal donor cells, and the absence of standardized transplantation protocols have prevented neurorestorative therapies from becoming a routine procedure in patients suffering from neurodegenerative diseases. Improvement of graft survival, surgery techniques, and identification of the optimal target area are imperative for further optimization of this novel treatment. In the present study, human primary fetal ventral mesencephalon-derived tissue from 7- to 9-week-old human fetuses was transplanted into 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned adult Sprague–Dawley rats. Graft survival, fiber outgrowth, and drug-induced rotational behavior up to 14 weeks posttransplantation were compared between different intrastriatal transplantation techniques (full single cell suspension vs. partial tissue pieces suspension injected by glass capillary or metal cannula) and the intranigral glass capillary injection of a full (single cell) suspension. The results demonstrate a higher survival rate of dopamine neurons, a greater reduction in amphetamine-induced rotations (overcompensation), and more extensive fiber outgrowth for the intrastriatally transplanted partial (tissue pieces) suspension compared to all other groups. Apomorphine-induced rotational bias was significantly reduced in all groups including the intranigral group. The data confirm that human ventral mesencephalon-derived cells serve as a viable cell source, survive in a xenografting paradigm, and functionally integrate into the host tissue. In contrast to rat donor cells, keeping the original (fetal) neuronal network by preparing only a partial suspension containing tissue pieces seems to be beneficial for human cells, although a metal cannula that causes greater tissue trauma to the host is required for injection. In addition, homotopic intranigral grafts may represent a complimentary grafting approach to the “classical” ectopic intrastriatal target site in PD.

Neuroprotective effects of erythropoietin on 6-hydroxydopamine-treated ventral mesencephalic dopamine-rich cultures.

Parkinsons disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with motor symptoms caused by the loss of dopaminergic (DA) cells and consequently dopamine release in the nigrostriatal system. In vivo and in vitro 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) PD models are widely used to study the effect of striatal dopamine depletion as well as novel neuroprotective or restorative therapeutic strategies for PD. In the present study, we investigated in vitro the toxicity of 6-OHDA on DA neurons derived from E14 rat ventral mesencephalon (VM) and the neuroprotective efficiency of erythropoietin (Epo) on VM-derived cell cultures against 6-OHDA toxicity. Using E14 VM-derived DA-rich primary cultures, we could demonstrate that 6-OHDA toxicity works in a time-and concentration-dependent way, and leads to cell death not only in DA cells but also in non-DA cells in direct relation to concentration and incubation times. In addition, we found that 6-OHDA toxicity induces caspase-3 activation and an increment of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in VM-derived cultures. When 6-OHDA-treated VMs were cultured in the presence of the anti-apoptotic protein erythropoietin (Epo), the total neuronal population, including the DA neurons, was protected. However, untreated VM cultures exposed to Epo showed an increase in the total neuronal population, but not an additional increase in DA neuron cell number. These findings suggest that 6-OHDA toxicity is time and concentration-dependent and does not exclusively affect DA neurons. In high concentration and long incubation times, 6-OHDA influences the survival of other neuronal and non-neuronal cell populations derived from the VM cultures. 6-OHDA toxicity induces caspase-3 activation, indicating cell death via the apoptotic pathway which could be restricted or even prevented by pre-exposure to Epo, known to interact via the apoptotic pathway. Our results support and expand on previous findings showing that Epo is an interesting candidate molecule to mediate neuroprotective effects on DA neurons in PD. Furthermore, it could be used in promoting the survival of DA neurons after transplantation in clinical trials.

Graft-mediated functional recovery on a skilled forelimb use paradigm in a rodent model of Parkinson's disease is dependent on reward contingency

The Staircase test measures lateralised deficits in skilled paw reaching in rodents, and there is a long-standing discrepancy in the literature on whether the paradigm is sensitive to graft-mediated functional recovery in the rodent model of Parkinsons disease. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the critical influence of test conditions like pellet density on dopamine-dependent graft-mediated functional recovery. Rats were pre-trained on the Staircase test with a configuration of 8 pellets in each of the 6 wells bilaterally prior to receiving unilateral 6-OHDA lesions of the medial forebrain bundle. Later, the lesioned animals received E14 VM grafts into the striatum, and were tested on the Staircase test under one of two test configurations: bilaterally, either with 10 (HIGH) or with 2 (LOW) pellets per well. Subsequent sessions included unilateral forced-choice testing under the same pellet configuration, and second bilateral and forced-choice sessions with the pellet density configurations switched around between the groups (Cross-over). Animals were also tested on the Corridor and the Cylinder test, and subjected to drug-induced rotation. Graft-mediated functional recovery was observed in the pellets taken criteria only under the HIGH pellet configuration during the bilateral and the forced choice condition. When tested under the LOW configuration, the graft provided no measurable benefit. The presence of VM grafts reduced lateralised motor deficits in the Cylinder test, the adjacent version of the Corridor test, and drug-induced rotation. Our results confirm that VM transplants can partially restore skilled forelimb sensorimotor deficits under specific testing configuration.

Multitract microtransplantation increases the yield of DARPP-32-positive embryonic striatal cells in a rodent model of Huntington's disease.

Embryonic striatal graft-mediated functional recovery in the rodent lesion model of Huntingtons disease (HD) has been shown to correlate with the proportion of dopamine- and adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate-regulated phosphoprotein with a molecular weight of 32 kDa (DARPP-32)-positive neurons in the graft. The current study investigated the impact of graft distribution on the yield of DARPP-32-positive cells in the grafts following either single-tract or multitract cell delivery protocols using the microtransplantation approach. Cells derived from the whole ganglionic eminence of E15 rat embryos, ubiquitously expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP), were implanted into unilaterally QA-lesioned rat striatum either as 2 × 1.8 μl macrodeposits in a single tract, or as 18 × 0.2 μl microdeposits disseminated over six needle, multitract, penetrations. For both groups, an ultrathin glass capillary with an outer diameter of 50 μm was used. Histological assessment at 4 months after transplantation showed nearly twofold increase of DARRP-32-positive striatal-like neurons in the multitract compared to the single-tract group. However, the cellular make-up of the grafts did not translate into functional differences as tested in a basic spontaneous behavior test. Furthermore, the volumetric values for overall volume, DARPP-32-positive patches, and dopaminergic projection zones were similar between both groups. The results show that distribution of fetal striatal tissue in multiple submicroliter deposits provides for an increased yield of striatal-like neurons, potentially due to the enlargement of the graft–host border area intensifying the grafts exposure to host-derived factors. Furthermore, the use of embryonic tissue from GFP donors was validated in cell-based therapy studies in the HD model.

The Lewis GFP Transgenic Rat Strain is a Useful Cell Donor for Neural Transplantation

Stem cell transplantation is a promising therapeutic approach in neurodegenerative diseases. Studying graft survival and development has important implications for the further development of experimental and clinical transplantation protocols. Cellular elements in neural transplants are sometimes difficult to identify. The existing labeling methods cannot reliably provide stably labeled cells that can be detected in long-term experiments. Transgenic (tg) Lewis rats ubiquitously expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) provide an ideal donor source. The aim of this project was to investigate the potential of GFP-tg Lewis rats to serve as donor tissue for neural stem cell transplantation. Ventral mesencephalon (VM) GFP-tg E14.5-derived cells were compared to wild-type (wt) in vitro and in vivo. Firstly, cells from GFP and non-GFP VM tissue were compared with regard to their proliferation and response towards 6-OHDA-toxicity in culture. Secondly, 6-OHDA-lesioned hemiparkinsonian Sprague–Dawley/Crl:CD(SD) rats received intrastriatal grafts derived from VM of E14.5 GFP-tg rats. Due to the fact that donor and recipient belong to two different rat strains, we focused on graft survival in correlation with immunosuppression and graft GFP and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression. In summary, in vitro tg cells exhibited 98% GFP expression and did not differ from wt cells in any of the measured parameters. In vivo, all experimental groups showed a significant compensation in rotation behavior after transplantation. Furthermore, there was no difference on rotation behavior or graft morphology and survival pattern as well as GFP expression between immunosuppressed and nonimmunosuppressed animals. The GFP-positive population of the graft was composed of 13.3% GFAP-positive, 56.1% NeuN-positive, and 1.9% TH-positive cells. Analysis of graft subpopulations manifested that 70.6% of GFAP-positive, 86.9% of NeuN-positive, and 80.1% of TH-positive cells coexpressed GFP. In conclusion, our data show that the Lewis GFP-tg rats serve as an excellent cell source for studying primary neural precursor cells in the transplantation paradigm.

Ketamine anaesthesia interferes with the quinolinic acid-induced lesion in a rat model of Huntington's disease

Ketamine, a non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist, is a commonly used injectable anaesthetic agent. In the present study, ketamine- and isoflurane-induced anaesthesias were tested to identify the influence of different anaesthesia methods in conjunction with the unilateral quinolinic acid-induced excitotoxic lesion rat model of Huntingtons disease (HD). Quinolinic acid, a glutamate analogue, exerts its excitotoxic effect via the NMDA receptor, the principle target of ketamine as well, rendering the choice of anaesthesia an important pharmacokinetic issue. Twenty Sprague-Dawley females were lesioned using quinolinic acid: one group was anaesthetised with ketamine and the other with isoflurane. The injection coordinates and the dosage of quinolinic acid were identical. Two weeks post-lesion, the animals were tested on apomorphine-induced rotation test, followed by perfusion, immunohistochemical and volumetric analysis. The isoflurane, compared with the ketamine, anaesthetised animals showed greater ipsilateral rotation behaviour, larger striatal lesions and significant differences in other measurements reflecting the extent of the lesion. The data demonstrates that the use of ketamine anaesthesia in the excitotoxic model of HD can severely compromise the development of the lesion.