B Burke

Skin dose in longitudinal and transverse linac‐MRIs using Monte Carlo and realistic 3D MRI field models

PURPOSE The magnetic fields of linac-MR systems modify the path of contaminant electrons in photon beams, which alters patient skin dose. To accurately quantify the magnitude of changes in skin dose, the authors use Monte Carlo calculations that incorporate realistic 3D magnetic field models of longitudinal and transverse linac-MR systems. METHODS Finite element method (FEM) is used to generate complete 3D magnetic field maps for 0.56 T longitudinal and transverse linac-MR magnet assemblies, as well as for representative 0.5 and 1.0 T Helmholtz MRI systems. EGSnrc simulations implementing these 3D magnetic fields are performed. The geometry for the BEAMnrc simulations incorporates the Varian 600C 6 MV linac, magnet poles, the yoke, and the magnetic shields of the linac-MRIs. Resulting phase-space files are used to calculate the central axis percent depth-doses in a water phantom and 2D skin dose distributions for 70 μm entrance and exit layers using DOSXYZnrc. For comparison, skin doses are also calculated in the absence of magnetic field, and using a 1D magnetic field with an unrealistically large fringe field. The effects of photon field size, air gap (longitudinal configuration), and angle of obliquity (transverse configuration) are also investigated. RESULTS Realistic modeling of the 3D magnetic fields shows that fringe fields decay rapidly and have a very small magnitude at the linac head. As a result, longitudinal linac-MR systems mostly confine contaminant electrons that are generated in the air gap and have an insignificant effect on electrons produced further upstream. The increase in the skin dose for the longitudinal configuration compared to the zero B-field case varies from ∼1% to ∼14% for air gaps of 5-31 cm, respectively. (All dose changes are reported as a % of D(max).) The increase is also field-size dependent, ranging from ∼3% at 20 × 20 cm(2) to ∼11% at 5 × 5 cm(2). The small changes in skin dose are in contrast to significant increases that are calculated for the unrealistic 1D magnetic field. For the transverse configuration, the entrance skin dose is equal or smaller than that of the zero B-field case for perpendicular beams. For a 10 × 10 cm(2) oblique beam the transverse magnetic field decreases the entry skin dose for oblique angles less than ±20° and increases it by no more than 10% for larger angles up to ±45°. The exit skin dose is increased by 42% for a 10 × 10 cm(2) perpendicular beam, but appreciably drops and approaches the zero B-field case for large oblique angles of incidence. CONCLUSIONS For longitudinal linac-MR systems only a small increase in the entrance skin dose is predicted, due to the rapid decay of the realistic magnetic fringe fields. For transverse linac-MR systems, changes to the entrance skin dose are small for most scenarios. For the same geometry, on the exit side a fairly large increase is observed for perpendicular beams, but significantly drops for large oblique angles of incidence. The observed effects on skin dose are not expected to limit the application of linac-MR systems in either the longitudinal or transverse configuration.

Radio frequency shielding for a linac-MRI system

The real-time operation of a linac-MRI system will require proper radio frequency (RF) shielding such that the MRI images can be acquired without extraneous RF noise from the linac. We report on the steps taken to successfully shield the linac from the MRI such that the two devices can operate independently of one another. RF power density levels are reported internally and externally to the RF cage which houses the linac and MRI. The shielding effectiveness of the RF cage has been measured in the frequency range 1-50 MHz and is presented. Lastly MRI images of two phantoms are presented during linac operation. This work illustrates that the accelerating structure of a linac and an MRI can be housed within the same RF cage. The 6 MV linac can be operated to produce radiation with no measurable degradation in image quality due to RF effects.

Radio frequency noise from an MLC: a feasibility study of the use of an MLC for linac-MR systems.

Currently several groups are actively researching the integration of a megavoltage teletherapy unit with magnetic resonance (MR) imaging for real-time image-guided radiotherapy. The use of a multileaf collimator (MLC) for intensity-modulated radiotherapy for linac-MR units must be investigated. The MLC itself will likely reside in the fringe field of the MR and the motors will produce radio frequency (RF) noise. The RF noise power spectral density from a Varian 52-leaf MLC motor, a Varian Millennium MLC motor and a brushless fan motor has been measured as a function of the applied magnetic field using a near field probe set. For the Varian 52-leaf MLC system, the RF noise produced by 13 of 52 motors is studied as a function of distance from the MLC. Data are reported in the frequency range suitable for 0.2-1.5 T linac-MR systems. Below 40 MHz the Millennium MLC motor tested showed more noise than the Varian 52-leaf motor or the brushless fan motor. The brushless motor showed a small dependence on the applied magnetic field. Images of a phantom were taken by the prototype linac-MR system with the MLC placed in close proximity to the magnet. Several orientations of the MLC in both shielded and non-shielded configurations were studied. For the case of a non-shielded MLC and associated cables, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) was reduced when 13 of 52 MLC leaves were moved during imaging. When the MLC and associated cables were shielded, the measured SNR of the images with 13 MLC leaves moving was experimentally the same as the SNR of the stationary MLC image. When the MLC and cables are shielded, subtraction images acquired with and without MLC motion contains no systematic signal. This study illustrates that the small RF noise produced by functioning MLC motors can be effectively shielded to avoid SNR degradation. A functioning MLC can be incorporated into a linac-MR unit.

Effect of radiation induced current on the quality of MR images in an integrated linac‐MR system

PURPOSE In integrated linac-MRI systems, the RF coils are exposed to the linacs pulsed radiation, leading to a measurable radiation induced current (RIC). This work (1) visualizes the RIC in MRI raw data and determines its effect on the MR image signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) (b) examines the effect of linac dose rate on SNR degradations, (c) examines the RIC effect on different MRI sequences, (d) examines the effect of altering the MRI sequence timing on the RIC, and (e) uses a postprocessing method to reduce the RIC signal from the MR raw data. METHODS MR images were acquired on the linac-MR prototype system using various imaging sequences (gradient echo, spin echo, and bSSFP), dose rates (0, 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 MU∕min) and repetition times (TR) with the gradient echo sequence. The images were acquired with the radiation beam either directly incident or blocked from the RF coils. The SNR was calculated for each of these scenarios, showing a loss in SNR due to RIC. Finally, a postprocessing method was applied to the image k-space data in order to remove partially the RIC signal and recover some of the lost SNR. RESULTS The RIC produces visible spikes in the k-space data acquired with the linacs radiation incident on the RF coils. This RIC leads to a loss in imaging SNR that increases with increasing linac dose rate (15%-18% loss at 250 MU∕min). The SNR loss seen with increasing linac dose rate appears to be largely independent of the MR sequence used. Changing the imaging TR had interesting visual effects on the appearance of RIC in k-space due to the timing between the linacs pulsing and the MR sequence, but did not change the SNR loss for a given linac dose rate. The use of a postprocessing algorithm was able to remove much of the RIC noise spikes from the MR image k-space data, resulting in the recovery of a significant portion, up to 81% (Table II), of the lost image SNR. CONCLUSIONS The presence of RIC in MR RF coils leads to a loss of SNR which is directly related to the linac dose rate. The RIC related loss in SNR is likely to increase for systems that are able to provide larger than 250 MU∕min dose. Some of this SNR loss can be recovered through the use of a postprocessing algorithm, which removes the RIC artefact from the image k-space.

Radiation induced currents in MRI RF coils: application to linac/MRI integration

The integration of medical linear accelerators (linac) with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) systems is advancing the current state of image-guided radiotherapy. The MRI in these integrated units will provide real-time, accurate tumor locations for radiotherapy treatment, thus decreasing geometric margins around tumors and reducing normal tissue damage. In the real-time operation of these integrated systems, the radiofrequency (RF) coils of MRI will be irradiated with radiation pulses from the linac. The effect of pulsed radiation on MRI radio frequency (RF) coils is not known and must be studied. The instantaneous radiation induced current (RIC) in two different MRI RF coils were measured and presented. The frequency spectra of the induced currents were calculated. Some basic characterization of the RIC was also done: isolation of the RF coil component responsible for RIC, dependence of RIC on dose rate, and effect of wax buildup placed on coil on RIC. Both the time and frequency characteristics of the RIC were seen to vary with the MRI RF coil used. The copper windings of the RF coils were isolated as the main source of RIC. A linear dependence on dose rate was seen. The RIC was decreased with wax buildup, suggesting an electronic disequilibrium as the cause of RIC. This study shows a measurable RIC present in MRI RF coils. This unwanted current could be possibly detrimental to the signal to noise ratio in MRI and produce image artifacts.

Radiation induced current in the RF coils of integrated linac‐MR systems: The effect of buildup and magnetic field

PURPOSE In integrated linac-MRI systems, a measurable radiation induced current (RIC) is caused in RF coils by pulsed irradiation. This work (1) tests a buildup method of RIC removal in planar conductors; (2) validates a Monte Carlo method of RIC calculation in metal conductors; and (3) uses the Monte Carlo method to examine the effects of magnetic fields on both planar conductor and practical cylindrical coil geometries. METHODS The RIC was measured in copper and aluminum plates, taken as the RF coil conductor surrogates, as a function of increasing thickness of buildup materials (teflon and copper). Based on the Penelope Monte Carlo code, a method of RIC calculation was implemented and validated against measurements. This method was then used to calculate the RIC in cylindrical coil geometries with various air gaps between the coil conductor and the enclosed water phantom. Magnetic fields, both parallel and perpendicular to the radiation beam direction, were then included in the simulation program. The effect of magnetic fields on the effectiveness of RIC removal with the application of buildup material was examined in both the planar and the cylindrical geometries. RESULTS Buildup reduced RIC in metal plate conductors. For copper detector∕copper buildup case, the RIC amplitude was reduced to zero value with 0.15 cm copper buildup. However, when the copper is replaced with teflon as buildup atop the copper conductor, the RIC was only reduced to 80% of its value at zero buildup since the true electronic equilibrium cannot be obtained in this case. For the aluminum detector∕teflon buildup case, the initial amplitude of the RIC was reduced by 90% and 92% in planar aluminum conductor and a surface coil, respectively. In case of cylindrical coils made of aluminum, teflon buildup around the coils outer surface was generally effective but failed to remove RIC when there was an air gap between the coil and the phantom. Stronger magnetic fields (>0.5 T) perpendicular to the beam direction showed a modest decrease in the RIC for planar conductors with buildup. In the cylindrical geometries, the effect of magnetic fields was very small compared to the effect of introducing air gaps. Loss in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) due to RIC was reduced from 11% to 5% when a simple buildup was applied to the solenoid in a preliminary experiment. CONCLUSIONS The RIC in RF coils results from the lack of electronic equilibrium in the coil conductor as the RIC in planar conductor was completely removed by identical buildup of adequate thickness to create electronic equilibrium. The buildup method of RIC removal is effective in cylindrical coil geometry when the coil conductor is in direct contact with the patient. The presence of air makes this method of RIC removal less effective although placing buildup still reduces the RIC by up to 60%. The RIC Monte Carlo simulation is a useful tool for practical coil design where radiation effects must be considered. The SNR is improved in the images obtained concurrently withradiation if buildup is applied to the coil.

Radio frequency noise from clinical linear accelerators

There is a great deal of interest in image-guided radiotherapy (IGRT), and to advance the state of IGRT, an integrated linear accelerator-magnetic resonance (linac-MR) system has been proposed. Knowledge of the radiofrequency (RF) emissions near a linac is important for the design of appropriate RF shielding to facilitate the successful integration of these two devices. The frequency spectra of both electric and magnetic fields of RF emission are measured using commercially available measurement probes near the treatment couch in three clinical linac vaults with distinct physical layouts. The magnitude spectrum of the RF power emitted from these three linacs is then estimated. The electric field spectrum was also measured at several distances from the linac modulator in order to assess the effects of variations in spatial location in the treatment vault. A large fraction of RF power is emitted at frequencies below 5 MHz. However, the measured RF power at the Larmor frequency (8.5 MHz) of the proposed 0.2 T MR in the linac-MR (0.4-14.6 microW m(-2)) is still large enough to cause artifacts in MR images. Magnetron-based linacs generally emit much larger RF power than klystron-based linacs. In the frequency range of 1-50 MHz, only slight variation in the measured electric field is observed as a function of measurement position. This study suggests that the RF emissions are strong enough to cause image artifacts in MRI systems.

TH‐E‐BRA‐09: Radiation Induced Current Effects on MR Images from an Integrated Linac‐MR System

Purpose: During the real‐time MR image acquisition of an integrated linac/MRI system, the MRIs RF coils is exposed to pulsed radiation resulting in radiation induced currents (RIC). This work will: (a) visualize the RIC signal as artefacts in k‐space and determine its effect on MRIs signal‐to‐noise ratio (SNR), (b) examine the effects of linac repetition rate (MU/minute) and MRIimaging sequence parameter ‘TR’ on the RIC artefact, (c) use post processing methods to remove the unwanted RIC signal from the MR images.Methods: A small test phantom was imaged with no radiation first. Phantom imaging was then repeated concurrently with linac producing radiation at various repetition rates in two scenarios: (1) the radiation beam was incident on the RF coil unobstructed and (2) a lead block attenuated the radiation beam before reaching the RF coil. Scenario (1) was repeated by obtaining images for several values of TR. Finally, a post‐processing algorithm was applied to the corrupted MR k‐space data to remove the RIC artefact. Results: The RIC artefact presented as near vertical lines in k‐space data for integer ratios of TR to linac pulsing period (rate =180 Hz). For non‐integer ratios, the artefact lost its regular pattern and became random in appearance. The RIC artefact disappeared from the k‐space data when the linacs radiation was blocked. The imageSNR decreased with increasing linac repetition rate. The post‐processing method was successful in restoring a significant fraction of the lost imageSNR.Conclusions: Signal spikes observed in the k‐space data are confirmed to result from RIC. The SNR reduction in MRIimages, due to the RIC, is directly related to the linac repetition rate. The artefacts appearance depends on the relationship between linac pulse repetition rate and image sequence timing. Our post‐processing algorithm allows the recovery of the lost imageSNR. The financial support is provided by the Canadian Institute of Health Research operating grant # MOP 93752.

WE-E-BRB-06: Monte Carlo Calculations of the Skin Dose for Longitudinal Linac-MR System Using Realistic Three-Dimensional Magnetic Field Modeling

PURPOSE This study quantifies the effects of the magnetic field of a longitudinal linac-MR system (B-field parallel to beam direction) on skin dose due to the confinement of contaminant electrons, using Monte Carlo calculations and realistic 3-D models of the magnetic field. METHODS The complete realistic 3-D magnetic fields generated by the bi-planar Linac-MR magnet assembly are calculated with the finite element method using Opera- 3D. EGSnrc simulations are performed in the presence of ∼0.6T and IT MRI fields that have realistic rapid fall-off of the fringe field. The simulation geometry includes a Varian 600C 6MV linac, the yoke and magnetic shields of the MRIs, and features an isocentre distance of 126 cm. Phase spaces at the surface of a water phantom are scored using BEAMnrc; DOSXYZnrc is used to score the resulting CAX percent depth-doses in the phantom and the 2D skin dose distributions in the first 70 urn layer. For comparison, skin doses are also calculated in the absence of magnetic field and using a 1-D magnetic field with an unrealistic fringe field. The effects of field size and air gap (between phantom surface and magnet pole) are also examined. RESULTS Analysis of the phase-space and dose distributions reveals that significant containment of electrons occurs primarily close to the uniform magnetic field region. The increase in skin dose due to the magnetic field depends on the air gap, varying from 1% to 13% for air gaps of 5 to 31 cm, respectively. The increase is also field-size dependent, varying from 3% at 20×20 cm2 to 11% at 5×5 cm2. CONCLUSIONS Calculations based on various realistic MRI 3D magnetic-field maps that appropriately account for the rapid decay of the fringe field show that the increase in the patient skin dose of a longitudinal Linac-MR system is clinically insignificant.

SU‐E‐J‐84: Radiation Induced Currents in RF Coil Conductors: Measurements and Simulations

Purpose: The integration of a medicallinac with magnetic resonance imaging(MRI) has the potential to provide exquisite soft tissue contrast and real time imaging during the radiation treatment. However, during a real time treatment‐imaging session, the direct irradiation of MRIs radiofrequency (RF) coil by the pulsed x‐ray beam induces a current in the conductor of the RF coil due to the release of Compton electrons. This radiation induced current (RIC) can potentially degrade the SNR in acquired MRIimages. The present work investigates methods of minimizing this RIC both experimentally and through Monte Carlo simulations.Methods: Copper and aluminum metal plates emulating the conductors used in RF coils were connected to an amplifier and placed in an RF cage. The plates (i.e. “detector”) were irradiated by the linacs pulsed 6 MV beam through the RF cage. The induced signal was measured by an oscilloscope and recorded using a PC. Various materials were used as buildup in an attempt to establish electronic equilibrium in the “detectors” ‐ thus removing the undesired RIC. A Monte Carlo script was written which counts the amount of charge entering and leaving a specified “detector volume”, and determines the net change in charge per primary history as a measure of RIC. The simulation geometry mimics the experimental setup.Results: It has been clearly demonstrated by both measurements and simulations that buildup of the same material as the conductor will reestablish electronic equilibrium and remove the RIC. Also, using a polymer with a density close to that of the conductor (i.e. Teflon with aluminum) for buildup will reduce the RIC to negligible amplitude Conclusions: With the proper combination of coil conductor and buildup, the RIC can be reduced to negligible amplitudes. Future work will assess the importance of RIC for the SNR in MRIimages.