Beria Leimona

REDD+ Readiness progress across countries: time for reconsideration

Efforts towards Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation plus conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of carbon stocks (REDD+) have grown in importance in developing countries following negotiations within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This has favoured investments in processes to prepare countries for REDD+ at the national level (a process referred to as REDD+ Readiness). Yet, little attention has been given to how Readiness can be assessed and potentially improved. This article presents a framework for Readiness assessment and compares progress in REDD+ Readiness across four countries, namely Cameroon, Indonesia, Peru, and Vietnam. The Readiness assessment framework comprises six functions, namely planning and coordination; policy, laws, and institutions; measurement, reporting, verification (MRV), and audits; benefit sharing; financing; and demonstrations and pilots. We found the framework credible and consistent in measuring progress and eliciting insight into Readiness processes at the country level. Country performance for various functions was mixed. Progress was evident on planning and coordination, and demonstration and pilots. However, MRV and audits; financing; benefit sharing; and policies, laws and institutions face major challenges. The results suggest that the way national forest governance has been shaped by historical circumstances (showing path dependency) is a critical factor for progress in Readiness processes. There is need for a rethink of the current REDD+ Readiness infrastructure given the serious gaps observed in addressing drivers of deforestation and forest degradation, linking REDD+ to broader national strategies and systematic capacity building.

Towards operational payments for water ecosystem services in Tanzania: a case study from the Uluguru Mountains

Sustaining the regular flow of water from mountain forests is important for downstream stakeholders in seasonally dry tropical countries, and a watershed payment for ecosystem services (PES) scheme that links rural ecosystem service providers to urban water users through economic transfers may help to maintain water supply and forest habitat. A CARE/WWF project in the Uluguru Mountains of Tanzania has established a pilot watershed PES scheme. We trace the development of this scheme and outline its initial impacts. Memoranda of Understanding between companies in Dar es Salaam (the downstream water users) and farmers in the mountains provide the framework to deliver tangible financial benefits to local people, help change patterns of land use and potentially improve water quality. A number of lessons learned from this project are relevant for similar schemes elsewhere in the region. Overcoming the various challenges is essential for expanding the current pilot project to a scale where it delivers measurable changes in water quality for downstream users.

Certify and shift blame, or resolve issues? Environmentally and socially responsible global trade and production of timber and tree crops

ABSTRACT Certification of adherence to social and environmental standards allows companies involved in the (global) trade of commodities to dissociate themselves from negative impacts in the public eye. It can go beyond compliance with legal requirements. Certification can be an attempt to shift blame to uncertified others, but it can also contribute to resolving the underlying issues of concern. We provide a framework for a study of when, where and how certification schemes emerge and evolve, with specific attention to the degree to which underlying issues get addressed. Three strands of literature are combined in this framework (1) the issue–attention cycle as a schematic representation of public concerns shaping policy responses; (2) the management swing potential defined as the gap between best and worst current production systems and the basis for defining standards and (3) global value chains that link distant producers and consumers, and the power relations along these chains, including standards and certification. Based on literature review, we introduce a set of four propositions that inform testable specific hypotheses. We outline questions for reviews, in subsequent papers of this issue, of the experience on timber, oil palm, coffee, cacao and rubber as tropical-forest-margin commodities dominated by global trade. EDITED BY Christian Albert

Making a green rubber stamp: emerging dynamics of natural rubber eco-certification

ABSTRACT The recent expansion and intensification of natural rubber cultivation has been associated with widespread forest conversion, habitat and biodiversity loss, increased livelihood vulnerabilities and, in some cases, dispossession of land. While these issues have attracted considerable attention from scientific and academic communities, public awareness – particularly in terms of consumer demand for standards and certification – has been slow to develop in comparison to other agro-commodity crops. Drawing on the concepts of global value chain analysis, management swing potential and issue attention cycle, this article examines the relatively slow uptake of natural rubber eco-certification through a comparison of three case studies in Jambi (Indonesia), Xishuangbanna (China) and Kerala (India). This study finds that natural rubber certification has taken a path of least resistance, emerging in relatively short value chains characterized by high degrees of vertical integration where existing production practices require minimal adjustment to achieve certification. Although certification programmes often position themselves as transparent and accountable alternatives to government regulation, the success of these programmes is dependent on the continued presence of the state to establish the necessary institutional and social foundations for private regulation to operate successfully. Consumer pressure plays an important role in evoking sustainability initiatives and influencing standards, yet when disconnected from the specific issues associated with a particular commodity, public concerns may produce standards and forms of certification that need to be complemented by sub-national and national policy and programmes in providing solutions for ecosystem service and social problems. EDITED BY Meine van Noordwijk

To what extent are genetic resources considered in environmental service provision? A case study based on trees and carbon sequestration

Planting trees to sequester carbon dioxide mitigates climate change, but it has been contended that insufficient attention is given to the quality of the germplasm established in afforestation/reforestation programmes, limiting sequestration opportunities. To understand current practices in the choice, sourcing and delivery of tree planting material, we undertook a desk review of 38 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) afforestation/reforestation project design documents (PDDs) from Africa, Asia and Latin America. Detailed examination indicated most PDDs identified for planting species that could be locally appropriate, with a large number of indigenous taxa as well as exotics chosen. The number of indigenous species in some designs appeared however to be unrealistic in terms of ensuring germplasm access. Reference to an online germplasm supplier database and comparison with the available literature supported the hypothesis that many PDDs pay insufficient attention to the choice, sourcing and delivery of planting material, which is likely to impact on the quality of the trees planted. Moving forward, it is clear that greater attention to available sources, more local testing of germplasm and working in closer relationship with local communities in nursery development are among the interventions required to support tree-based sequestration initiatives.

Discourses on the performance gap of agriculture in a green economy: a Q-methodology study in Indonesia

ABSTRACT Gaps exist between aspirations of ‘green agriculture’, which protects biodiversity and ecosystem services, and the reality on the ground. Using Q-methodology, we explored expert opinion in Indonesia on the contributing factors to the gaps. Q-methodology indicated three dominant discourses on ‘green agriculture’ and groups of experts who prioritize them: (1) endorsers of regulations and innovations; (2) providers of resources for access to capital, technology and knowledge; and (3) proponents of green economy (GE) and land-use planning (LUP). Group 1 pointed out the importance of endorsing incentives to reduce the gap, while Group 2 reckoned that building smallholders’ capacity and providing them with access to capital, technology, and knowledge are needed to green agricultural practices. Group 3 described the importance of integrating environmental value into the gross domestic product and earmarking sources derived from environmental levies for greening the agricultural sector. All discourses recognized the importance of scientific policy formulation. Groups 1 and 3 agreed that non-synchronization of LUP between national and local governments highly contributes to the gap. Groups 2 and 3 perceived that ecosystem services from the agricultural sector have not been sufficiently understood to promote green agricultural development. By simultaneously addressing the gaps on each level and understanding how each factor contributes to the gap, we propose a set of recommendations to improve the implementation of green agriculture in Indonesia by creating a platform that all three groups can recognize and support. EDITED BY Dagmar Mithöfer

Environmentally and socially responsible global production and trade of timber and tree crop commodities: certification as a transient issue-attention cycle response to ecological and social issues

The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) number 12 of Agenda 2030 states that the world ‘requires a strong national framework for sustainable consumption and production, integrated into national and sectoral plans, sustainable business practices and consumer behaviour’. This goal interconnects with other goals aimed at improving ecological infrastructure (SDG 13, 14, 15), changing institutions, increasing transparency, reducing conflicts, and ensuring sufficient food, water and energy for global society (SDG 2, 6, 7). In essence, these goals underline a shared belief that a shift towards more effectively managed biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services (ES) is indispensable. This Special Issue in International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management aims to contribute to the emerging science on how to maintain and rehabilitate biodiversity and ES effectively in the tropics where agricultural expansion has shaped the landscapes. Food production as a provisioning ES dominates direct economic value and employment in roughly half the world. Its sustainability, or lack thereof, depends on the way the trade-offs between human activities and ES, beyond the provision of food, are balanced and managed locally (e.g. impacts on water and soil quality and availability) and globally (e.g. impacts on macroclimate and global biodiversity) (Namirembe et al. 2018). Economic and social concerns closely interact with the ecological aspects of sustainable agriculture (Bernard et al. 2014) and reliance on child labour clashes with universal rights to education (Berlan 2004). The viability of rural communities has emerged as an issue during rapid urbanization with hopes that responsible consumption can reduce risks on both sides of the desakota (or rural–urban) continuum (Pelling and Mustafa 2010).